PSYA01 Chapter 3 FULL

Vertebrae

Individual joints that make up the vertebral column.

Peripheral Nervous System

Divided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movement and brings sensory information from the body to the brain.

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates automatic functions that keep the body alive and healthy.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the "fight or flight" response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the "rest and restore" response.

Reflex Circuits

Nerve pathways in the spinal cord that control reflex actions.

Spinal Cord Injury

When the spinal cord is injured, body parts controlled by nerves below the injury point can no longer be controlled voluntarily.

Information Highway

Analogy used to describe the spinal cord as a pathway for signals between the body and the brain.

Cranial Nerves

Nerves that originate in the brain and transmit commands to organs.

Glial Cells

Supporting cells in the nervous system.

Arousal Levels

Controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.

Heart Rate

Can be influenced by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Parasympathetic System

Active when the body is relaxed.

Neuroscience

The field of study focused on understanding the brain and its functions.

Experimental studies

Research studies where researchers intentionally damage a portion of the brain to observe changes in behavior.

Clinical case studies

Studies that examine the effects of brain damage resulting from illness or injury on behavior.

Hippocampus

A region of the brain involved in memory formation.

Organization of the brain

The complex arrangement and interdependence of different brain structures and processes.

Medulla

The lowest anatomical portion of the brain that regulates basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Pons

A brain structure that helps regulate arousal, coordinate senses, and control facial expressions.

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

A network of neurons in the medulla and pons that regulates arousal and attention.

Attention

The focus on tasks, people, or objects.

Limbic system

A collection of brain structures involved in regulating emotions, emotional memory, and integrating primitive functions with higher-order thought.

Amygdala

A structure in the brain responsible for processing emotions and forming memories associated with strong emotions.

Hippocampus

A circular structure in the brain involved in the formation of new memories and imagination of new possibilities.

Cingulate gyrus

A set of neurons located below the neocortex that helps focus attention and thoughts on unpleasant experiences.

Hypothalamus

A structure in the brain that helps control functions in the autonomic and endocrine systems, including hunger responses, sexual behavior, body temperature, and aggression.

Basal ganglia

Interconnected groups of neurons in the brain that modulate movement commands and help make complex movements more automatic.

Basal ganglia

Several groups of neuronal circuits near the base of the brain that help to coordinate movement and assist in making movements more automatic.

Dorsal striatum

Part of the basal ganglia consisting of the caudate nucleus and putamen.

Ventral striatum

Part of the basal ganglia consisting of the nucleus accumbens.

Globus pallidus

Part of the basal ganglia that sends inhibitory outputs to the thalamus to help integrate sensory and motor information with motor planning.

Substantia nigra

Part of the basal ganglia that is dopaminergic and is implicated in Parkinson's disease.

Subthalamic nucleus

Part of the basal ganglia involved in coordinating movements through practice.

Direct pathway

A circuit in the basal ganglia that has an excitatory effect on the thalamus and drives motor behavior.

Indirect pathway

A circuit in the basal ganglia that has a net inhibitory effect on its targets and helps shut down motor patterns/plans that are not right for the task at hand.

Cerebellum

A part of the brain that is responsible for rhythm, timing, and coordination of movement.

Spinocerebellar division

A division of the cerebellum that helps match sensory input with motor plans to fine-tune movement patterns.

Vestibulocerebellar division

A division of the cerebellum that processes information from the inner ear to help adjust posture and balance.

Cerebrocerebellar division

A division of the cerebellum that manages connections with the pons and thalamus to adjust the timing and planning of movements.

Thalamus

The relay station in the brain through which all senses (except smell) pass before being relayed to the neocortex for interpretation, organization, and action plans.

Neocortex

The higher-level processing region of the brain that is responsible for abstract thought and is characterized by its "wrinkled" appearance.

Frontal lobes

The region of the brain primarily responsible for decision-making and movement.

Executive function

The consequence of the interaction between the neural networks in the frontal lobes and the rest of the central nervous system, involved in regulating behavior and thought.

Phineas Gage

A famous case study of a railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that affected his frontal cortex, leading to significant changes in his personality and behavior.

Motor cortex

The posterior structure in the frontal lobes that houses the primary neurons responsible for initiating voluntary movement.

Homunculus

A graphical representation of the number of neurons dedicated to specific body parts or functions, showing the distribution of neural resources for movement and sensory input.

Prefrontal cortex

The area of the brain responsible for integrating information and making decisions based on multiple sources of information.

"If, then" decisions

Decisions made by the prefrontal cortex that involve considering different scenarios and determining appropriate actions based on specific criteria or input.

Negative symptoms

Symptoms observed in schizophrenic patients, such as social withdrawal, that are correlated with neural dysfunction in the prefrontal cortex.

Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)

A specialized part of the prefrontal cortex involved in modulating behavior based on fear and moral decision-making.

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)

Another specialized part of the prefrontal cortex responsible for maintaining information in working memory and adapting behavior based on different tasks.

Myelination

The process of wrapping myelin around axons to speed up the transmission of impulses. The prefrontal cortex is one of the last regions to undergo myelination.

Parietal lobes

The part of the brain involved in processing numbers, performing calculations, and coordinating movements.

Sensory cortex

The area in the parietal lobe that receives input from sensory receptors in the skin, muscles, and joints.

Decussation

The crossing of nerves carrying sensation from the body and motor commands from the brain to the body at the level of the brainstem.

Temporal lobes

The part of the brain responsible for forming memories, processing sound input, and housing Wernicke's area, which is important for language processing.

Anterograde amnesia

The loss of the ability to form new memories, often resulting from temporal lobe lesions.

Primary auditory cortex

The caudal part of the temporal lobe responsible for perceiving sound.

Wernicke's area

An important area in the left temporal lobe involved in the processing and comprehension of speech.

Olfactory system

The sensory system responsible for the sense of smell, which is housed in the temporal lobes.

Memory and olfaction

The functional relationship between memory and smell, where smells can serve as cues to help us remember certain experiences.

Broca's area

A region in the brain responsible for language production.

Wernicke's area

A region in the brain responsible for language comprehension.

Hypothalamus

A control center in the brain that regulates various bodily functions and releases hormones.

Olfactory cortex

The part of the brain responsible for processing smell.

Occipital lobes

The brain lobes primarily responsible for processing visual information.

Corpus callosum

A thick bundle of fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows them to share information.

Split-brain patients

Individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure to cut the corpus callosum, resulting in limited communication between the two brain hemispheres.

Laterality

The concept that different functions are performed by different hemispheres of the brain.

Visual processing

The processing and interpretation of visual information by the brain.

Coordination of movement

The brain areas involved in controlling and coordinating movements.

Corpus callosum

The brain structure that helps the two hemispheres of the brain communicate.

Endocrine system

A system of glands that release hormones and influence behavior.

Hypothalamus

A control center in the brain that secretes hormones and controls the pituitary gland.

Pineal gland

A gland that secretes melatonin to regulate sleep cycles.

Pituitary gland

A gland that secretes hormones affecting sexual behavior, reproduction, circulatory function, hunger, and responses to aggression.

HPA axis

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, a system involved in the body's response to stress.

Adrenal axis

Also known as the HPA axis, it is a system in the body that regulates endocrine function and is controlled by the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands.

Hypothalamus

Part of the limbic system located under the thalamus, it secretes hormones that control the pituitary gland and plays a role in regulating endocrine function.

Pituitary gland

A gland controlled by the hypothalamus that releases hormones and plays a role in regulating various bodily functions, including the release of cortisol in response to stress.

Cortisol

A stress hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to signals from the pituitary gland. It helps to mobilize energy and increase alertness, but excessive levels can lead to negative effects such as fatigue and impaired immune function.

Psychoneuroimmunology

The study of how the nervous system modulates immune function, including the impact of stress on immune system functioning.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A technique used to visualize and measure changes in nervous system activity by taking advantage of select physical properties and events in nervous system tissues.

Epistemology

The study of how knowledge is acquired and what can be known, in the context of neuroscience.

Structural imaging

Techniques used to examine the detailed structures of the nervous system.

Recording

Methods used to directly or indirectly record the activity of neurons in the nervous system.

Dissection

The process of taking tissue out of the nervous system to examine its connections and interrelationships.

Functional imaging

Techniques used to visualize and measure changes in nervous system activity in real-time.

Neuron

A specialized cell in the nervous system that transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.

Camillo Golgi

A scientist who invented a staining method to visualize neurons, which was a significant advancement in the study of the nervous system.

Ramon y Cajal

A scientist who improved on Golgi's staining method and made further contributions to the study of the nervous system.

Nervous system

The complex network of nerves and cells that transmit signals between different parts of the body.

Neurons

Specialized cells in the nervous system that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.