Unit 0: Science Practices - AP Psychology

Vocabulary terms covering AP Psychology Science Practices, research methodology, statistics, and ethical guidelines for scientific inquiry.

Critical Thinking

A process that feeds a scientific attitude and smarter thinking for everyday life, used to separate uninformed opinions from examined conclusions.

Hindsight bias

A cognitive bias that, along with overconfidence and the tendency to perceive order in random events, illustrates why science-based answers are more valid than common sense.

Theory

A component of psychological science that advances through research and the testing of hypotheses.

Operational Definition

A statement of the exact procedures used in a research study, essential for the process of replication.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique for observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things, ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$.

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists, or a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Regression Toward the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average.

Independent Variable(s)

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable(s)

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.

Institutional Review

The ethical guideline and process that safeguards human and animal welfare in psychological research.

Informed Consent

The ethical requirement of providing research participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score; a measure of variation.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance, used to determine if differences can be generalized.

overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's own abilities, knowledge, or predictions. This bias can lead to poor decision-making and risk assessment.

peer reviewers

Individuals who evaluate and provide feedback on research submissions, ensuring quality and validity before publication.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables, guiding the direction of research.

Falsifiable

A characteristic of a hypothesis that allows it to be proven false through observation or experimentation.

Replication

The process of conducting a study again to verify its findings and ensure reliability. Replication is essential for confirming the validity of research results.

Case Study

A research method involving an in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or phenomenon, often used to explore complex issues.

Survey

A research method that collects data from a sample of individuals through questionnaires or interviews to gather information about their opinions, behaviors, or characteristics.

Social desirability bias

The tendency of respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others, often compromising the accuracy of survey results.

Self-report bias

A type of bias that occurs when individuals provide inaccurate or misleading responses about themselves, often due to the desire to present themselves in a favorable light or misunderstanding the questions.

Experimenter Bias

A type of bias that occurs when a researcher's expectations or beliefs influence the outcome of an experiment, potentially skewing the results.

Population

The complete set of individuals or items that researchers are interested in studying, from which a sample may be drawn for analysis.

Sample

A subset of individuals or items selected from a larger population, used in research to represent the population as a whole.

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies to identify overall trends or effects, enhancing the power and validity of research findings.

Convenience Sampling

A non-probability sampling technique where individuals are selected based on their easy availability and proximity to the researcher, rather than using a random selection method.

Representative Sample

A subset that accurately reflects the characteristics of a larger population, ensuring that various segments are appropriately represented in research studies.

Experimental Methodology

A research method that involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable, allowing for causal inferences.

Non-Experimental Methodology

A research approach that does not involve manipulation of variables, focusing instead on observational or correlational techniques to gather data and analyze relationships.

Correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables fluctuate together, showing the strength and direction of their relationship.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation used in statistics to visualize the relationship between two quantitative variables, indicating correlations and trends.

Experiment

A research method that involves manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable, allowing for causal inferences.

Experimental Group 

A group in an experiment that receives the treatment or intervention being tested, allowing for comparison with the control group.

Control Group

A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, serving as a benchmark to measure the effects of the experimental group.

Random Assignment

The process of assigning participants to experimental and control groups randomly, which helps ensure that each participant has an equal chance of being placed in any group, reducing bias and increasing the validity of the results.

Placebo

A substance or treatment with no therapeutic effect used as a control in testing new drugs. It helps to isolate the effect of the actual treatment by comparing it with the effects of the placebo.

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon in which individuals experience a perceived improvement in their condition due to their belief in the effectiveness of a treatment, even when that treatment is a placebo.

Experimenter Bias

The inclination of a researcher to unintentionally influence the outcome of an experiment based on their expectations or preconceived notions. This can affect the validity and reliability of the study's results.

Single-Blind Procedure

A research design where only the participants are unaware of whether they are receiving the treatment or a placebo, minimizing bias and expectations in the subjects.

Quantitative Research

A type of research that involves the systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques to analyze it.

Qualitative Research

A type of research that focuses on understanding human behavior and experiences through the collection of non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations, and open-ended responses.

Likert Scales 

A type of rating scale used to measure attitudes or opinions, typically consisting of a series of statements that respondents indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with.

Institutional Review

A process that ensures ethical standards are upheld in research involving human participants, requiring approval from a review board to assess risks, benefits, and participant rights.

Informed Consent

A crucial ethical principle in research requiring that participants must be fully informed about the nature, risks, and benefits of the study, and voluntarily agree to participate.

Informed Assent

A process similar to informed consent, specifically for individuals who are unable to provide legal consent, such as minors or individuals with cognitive impairments, whereby researchers must ensure they understand the study and agree to participate.

Protect from Harm

An ethical principle in research that requires researchers to ensure participants are not exposed to unnecessary risks or harm during the study process.

Confidentiality

An ethical principle that mandates researchers to keep participants' personal information private and protect their identities throughout the research process.

Research Confederates

Individuals who assist researchers in conducting studies while posing as regular participants. They help manipulate the experimental conditions without participants' knowledge.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true nature of a study after its completion, including any deception that was used, and addressing any issues that may have arisen during the research.

Histogram

A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data, where data is divided into bins, and the frequency of data points within each bin is represented by the height of the bars.

Mode

The mode is the value that appears most frequently in a data set. It is used as a measure of central tendency, particularly in categorical data.

Mean

The mean is the average value of a data set, calculated by summing all the values and dividing by the number of values. It is a common measure of central tendency.

Median

The median is the middle value of a data set when it is ordered from least to greatest. It divides the data into two equal halves, making it a useful measure of central tendency, especially when the data set contains outliers.

Percentile Rank

The percentile rank is a measure that indicates the relative standing of a value within a data set, representing the percentage of scores that fall below that value. It is commonly used in educational assessments to compare individual performance to a broader population.

Range

The range is the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set. It provides a measure of the variability or spread of the data.

Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is a measure of the dispersion or spread of a set of values, indicating how much individual data points deviate from the mean. A low standard deviation means that the values tend to be close to the mean, while a high standard deviation indicates greater variability.

Statistical Significance

Statistical significance refers to the likelihood that a relationship or effect observed in data is not due to random chance. It is often assessed using p-values to determine whether results are meaningful in a given context.

Effect Size

Effect size is a quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon, providing insight into the strength of a relationship or the size of an intervention's impact beyond mere statistical significance.