LSU PSYC 2017 Exam 1 Cobb

Psychology is a

way of thinking

Two types of people

producers of research

consumers of research

producers of research need to be good at

creating research

reasons producers of research may need to be good at creating research

it's part of their coursework or training

it's part of their job

it's something they are passionate about

producer of research role is important for

coursework in psychology

graduate school

working in a research lab

consumers of research need to be good at

understanding research

reasons consumers of research may need to be good at understanding research

It's part of their coursework or training

It's part of their job

It will help them to live a better life or teach people important things

consumer of research role is important for

For psychology courses

When reading printed or online news stories based on research

For your future career (e.g., evidence-based treatment)

how scientists work

Scientists are empiricists.

Scientists test theories: the theory-data cycle. Scientists work in a community.

Scientists tackle applied and basic problems. Scientists make their work public.

Scientists talk to the world: from journal to journalism.

scientists are

people who are trained to use empiricism to answer questions about people, the world, the universe, animals, etc

Empiricism

an epistemological view which holds that true knowledge or justification comes only or primarily from sensory experience and empirical evidence.

Empiricism = relying on evidence/data rather than just beliefs, opinions, or intuition.

Empiricists

People who use formal research methods to systematically find answers to questions about the world

Quantitative methods

turn empirical observations into numbers

Qualitative methods

create rich descriptions not simplified into numbers

Reflexivity

scientists self-consciously consider how their background or privilege shapes what questions they ask and what interpretations they make.

Being aware of how YOU may affect the research.

Harlow and the cloth and wire mothers

There were two competing theories (cupboard theory and contact comfort theory) for explaining mother-infant attachment

He created one monkey mother made of wire that fed the infant. The other was warm and made of cloth but did not feed the infant. The monkey preferred the warm cloth mother.

When Harlow (1958) tested these theories, the data supported the contact comfort theory.

Studies

Supported by data (weight of evidence)

Replicable

Falsifiable

Studies do not prove theories

As producers of psychological science, we use the

data-theory cycle

We use data to support, test and extend

theory

And we also use theory to guide how we

conduct research and collect data

Theory leads researchers to pose particular

research questions

Research questions lead to an appropriate

Research design

In the context of the research design, researchers formulate

Hypotheses

Nonsupporting data lead to

revised theories or improved research design

Researchers then collect and analyze

data

data

feed back into the cycle

supporting data

strengthen the theory

Scientists work in a

community

Merton's Scientific Norms

Universalism

Communality

Disinterestedness

Organized skepticism

Universalism

scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit, independent of the researchers credentials or reputation. The same preestablished criteria apply to all scientists and all research.

scientific claims should be evaluated based on evidence, not claims.

Communality

scientific knowledge is created by a community, and its findings belong to the community

Disinterestedness

scientists strive to discover the truth, whatever it is; they are not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, or profit.

Scientists should _________ and _________ share the results of their work with other scientists and the public

transparently; frequently

Organized skepticism

scientists question everything, including their own theories, widely accepted ideas, and ancient wisdom.

Scientists accept almost no idea at face value

they always ask to see evidence

Scientists tackle ________ and _______ problems

applied; basic

Applied research

it is conducted in order to solve practical problems, the findings will be directly applied to finding a solution to a real-world problem.

Ex: conducting a study to determine if a new method of teaching language arts is working better than the former one

Basic research

its goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge about a particular topic.

Ex: conducting a study to investigate limitations of the infant attachment system.

Applied orientated

School psychology

Industrial and organizational psychology

Counseling / clinical psychology

Basic orientated

Cognitive psychology

Neuroscience

Social and personality psychology

Science communication within the scientific community

Academic articles and publishing

Conferences

Textbooks

Speaking engagements

Teaching

Science communication outside of the scientific community

News articles and interviews

Blog posts

Social media

Popular press books

The text gives two major reasons that experience is a faulty source of evidence for our beliefs. Please select the correct TWO choices.

Experience has confounds.

Experience has no comparison group.

confound

a confound is a 2nd variable that changes along with the independent variable. a confound gives another possible explanation for your results.

If we use the availability heuristic, we are basing our beliefs on

what comes to mind easily.

avalibility heuristic

a mental shortcut where people judge how likely or common something is based on how easily examples come to mind.

What does it mean to say that research is probabilistic?

Researchers refer to the probability that their theories are correct.

According to the text, what are some questions you can ask when you encounter a news item or "fact" in the popular media?

A. Could this be an example of disinformation?

B. Can I cross-check this story on some other sites I know are legitimate?

C. What is the context of this story?

D. Is the journalist politically biased?

Types of information

Experiential

Scientific

Experiential

Anecdotal

Subject to individual experiences, biases, perspectives, and backgrounds

Subjective

Scientific

Based on data and scientific methodology

Looking for systematic patterns across people, situations, contexts, etc.

Objective

Experience has no

comparison group

Experience is

confounded

Research is ______ than experience

better

Research is

probabilistic

What is the difference between experiential and scientific evidence?

Experiential evidence is based on personal experiences and observations, whereas scientific evidence is based on systematic observations.

Behavioral research is probabilistic

its findings are not expected to explain all the cases all the time (i.e., there are exceptions).

We expect that our theories are probabilistically correct most of the time

So we do research to test whether or not this is accurate

comparison groups eliminate

confounds

When doing research, we are (probably) never going to find

something that is true 100% of the time

Systematic variability

predictable change in data that comes from a specific, known factor or manipulated independent variable in an experiment

Ex: loaded die

Random variability

the natural, unpredictable differences or fluctuations seen in data or measurements due to chance rather than a specific, identifiable cause.

Ex: a fair die

Stochastic variability

natural or inherent randomness in a system where outcomes are governed by chance and probability rather than a fixed, predictable rule

Ex: the probability that you land on other sides of the die, given the outcome in previous rolls of the die

Comparison groups eliminate

compounds

least to most methodical ways of knowing

intuition

anecdotes

authority

empirical science

Ways that intuition can be biased

Being swayed by a good story

Being persuaded by what easily comes to mind

Focusing on the evidence we expect

Being biased about being biased

Cognitive biases

describe a general phenomenon across people where our brains are looking for patterns that are easy to understand but might not be accurate representations of the world

Availability heuristic

a cognitive bias where people are persuaded by what comes to mind

Confirmation bias

a cognitive bias where people look for information that confirms a preexisting belief and ignore information that refutes or contradicts their belief

Bias blind spot

Being biased about being biased

empirical science helps us avoid bias

data are crucial

scientists work together

research is like conversation

falsifiability

(good) science is peer reviewed

Components of an empirical journal article

Abstract

Introduction

Method

Results

Discussion

References

Motives for disinformation

Propaganda, passion, and politics

Provocation

Profit

measured variable

observed and recorded

manipulated variable

controlled

Some variables can only be measured

not manipulated

Some variables can be either

manipulated or measured

Measured variables

A measured variable is observed and recorded

Levels

are observed and recorded by the researcher

Ex: height, IQ, gender, and hair color, depression, stress

A manipulated variable is controlled

The researcher controls a variable

E.g., assigning participants to different levels of that variable.

Ex: a researcher might assign some people to take a test in a room with many other people and assign others to take the test alone

manipulated variable is also called

independent variable

Conceptual variable

construct; conceptual definition; abstract

Operational definition

operational variables; to operationalize

concrete, observable, measured

What is the difference between a variable and its levels? What might be the levels for the variable "favorite color?"

Variable = what you are measuring or changing

Level = the specific value/category of that variable

Levels for the variable favorite color: blue, red, purple, green, yellow, etc.

Explain why some variables can only be measured, not manipulated.

Some variables cannot be manipulated because researchers cannot or should not assign people to different levels of that variable.

Ex: age cannot be manipulated

Can "history of trauma" be a manipulated variable? Can "level of eye contact" be a manipulated variable?

1. Can NOT be manipulated

2. CAN be manipulated

What is the difference between a conceptual variable and the operational definition of a variable? How might the conceptual variables "level of eye contact," "intelligence," and "stress" be operationalized by a researcher?

Conceptual variable: The abstract idea being studied.

Operational definition: The specific way the variable is measured or manipulated.

Eye contact → seconds of eye contact

Intelligence → IQ test score

Stress → stress questionnaire score

Claim

An argument someone is trying to make. Psychological scientists use data to test and refine theories and claims

Frequency claim

one variable

Association claim

two variables that are related

Causal claim

two variables, one of which causes the other

The Frequency Claim

Describes the level or degree of one variable

Examples: birth rate, percentage of teens who vape, life expectancies

We get the data that support these claims from surveys or polls

The Association Claim

Argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable

At least two measured variables

Variables that are associated are said to correlate

We get the data that support these claims from correlational studies

Correlations

Means that two variables are related to each other, but not necessarily causal

As one goes up, the other goes up (positive)

As one goes down, the other goes up (negative)

The Causal Claim

Argues that one variable causes changes in the level of another variable.

Causal claims are supported by experiments (studies that have a manipulated variable and a measured variable)

We get the data that support these claims from experimental studies

correlation does not imply

causation

3 necessary criteria for causal claims are

covariance

temporal precedence

internal validity

covariance

The two variables change together (when one changes, the other tends to change too)

temporal precedence

The cause happens before the effect.

Internal validity

How well a study supports the conclusion that the IV caused the DV.