First Opium War

who carried out Emperor's orders

Mandarins, local officials. They had great power, governing as many as 250,000 people.

describe the role of mandarins

They collected taxes and could make a lot of money cheating peasants. They were responsible for keeping law and order - torture, execution of criminals by beheading was common.

describe confuscian ideas about how society should be structured

his basic principle was unless people lived an ordered life, social harmony would be impossible to achieve and chaos and conflict would follow.

What rules did Confuscius suggest were necessary to ensure social harmony

- acceptance of status quo

- obedience of children to their parents

- obedience of wives to husbands

- obedience of people to emperor and officials

describe how well China was accustomed to change

China had the longest continuous history of any nation in the world. China's civilisation stretches back 4000 years and developed an advanced way of life and highly organised society.

Who did the Emperor share power with

no one. In theory he was in total control. He was called the 'Son of Heaven' and from his dragon throne issued commands or 'decrees of heaven' for everyone to obey.

How did the mandate of heaven allow power changes

The principle of the Mandate of Heaven justified rebellion if rebellion is successful. Successful rebels were considered legitimate inheritors of the mandate of heaven.

what did China call itself

The Chinese word for China is zhongguo, meaning ‘the middle kingdom’ or the ‘centre of the world’.

describe China's view of foreign nations

- Until the nineteenth century, China had regarded itself as a society superior to others. It did have occasional contacts with the outside world, but it never considered these as especially significant. It retained a sense of its own uniqueness and superiority.

- The dismissive Chinese term to describe the people of other nations was 'barbarians'. This was a clear example of the essentially Sino-centric nature of Chinese thinking, which resulted from its centuries of detachment from outside influences.

describe industry in China under the Qing

- There was little industry in the China of the emperors: over 80% of the people worked on the land in the countryside.

- However some industries did develop in the towns, mostly producing luxury items such as silk, furniture and porcelain (called 'China' in England).

describe the trade system under the Emperors

- On the rare occasions when China did need to trade with 'outsiders', an elaborate tribute system had to obeyed, which was underlined by the fact that any trade in which it engaged was regarded as being made up of gifts from inferiors.

- Ironically, what China gave in return was often greater in amount and worth than it received. But this strange pattern of commerce preserved the notion of China's supremacy.

describe how much tea the british demanded

between 1801-1810 the British took 80% of Chinese tea

How did the British government benefit from the tea trade

10% of entire government revenue came from tax on tea

why was there a large trade deficit between Britain and China

The growing demand in Europe and America for Chinese teas, porcelain, silks, and decorative goods had not been matched by any growth in Chinese demand for Western exports. This meant the British had to pay in silver

describe the growth of British silver being imported into China

In the 1760s silver flow into Qing China exceeded 3.0 million taels; in the 1770s, the total grew to 7.5 million, and by the 1780s, 16.0 million taels.

what did the British exchange as a solution to the outpouring silver

Opium

describe the growth of Opium imports

in 1773 there were 1000 chests.

In 1832 there were 23,570 chests.

How could the public gain access to smoking opium

Small public rooms, where for a small amount of money, people could get a pipeful of opium and smoke it as they reclined in comfort brought the drug in reach of urban dwellers and the poor.

who initially took the drug

eunuchs, Manchu court officials, women from wealthy households students and soldiers took the drug looking for relief from boredom and stress.

how did the social effects of opium grow

By the end of the century many peasants had become addicts, particularly those who themselves had begun to grow opium as a cash crop to supplement their tiny incomes.

How did the Qing government attempt to control Opium smoking

Opium trading became more secretive after 1800, when an edict forbade both opium imports and domestic opium production in China, and especially after 1813, when further edicts banned opium smoking altogether.

why was the growth of Opium consumption important

the lethargy and apathy the drug produced in addicts were destroying work habits, family relations and social harmony. It was a matter of scale. Opium was acceptable when taken by the few became intolerable when taken by many.

What punishments were there for opium smoking

Chinese smokers could be punished with 100 blows of the bamboo and the public wearing of the "cangue" (a heavy wooden collar. As the Qing government tried to enforce its ban, the opium trade became increasingly clandestine.

describe the trade restrictions on English merchants

Trade regulations as imposed by the Chinese government, were very restrictive and trade was confined to the port of Canton only, for specified months of the year.

how did the Chinese attempt to overcome trade restrictions imposed by the Qing

In 1834 Lord Napier was appointed Chief Superintendent of Trade at Canton.

how did Napier ignore trade protocols

Napier, as instructed by his superiors, sought to communicate directly, by letter, with the imperial representative at Canton, Governor Lu.

Foreigners were forbidden to communicate directly with Chinese officials; all contact was to be made with officials of the local guild of merchants, the Cohong, who would then deal with Chinese officialdom on behalf of all foreign merchants and officials.

how successful was Napier's mission

Trade was resumed under the existing regulations

who did the Chinese appoint in an attempt to overcome the issue of Opium

Lin Zexu

how was the Daoguang emperor impacted by opium

he and most of his court were addicts

what encouraged the Emperor to take a tougher stance on Opium

opium infected the Qing's military forces and became a concern of national defence. Opium imports also seemed to be the cause of massive outpours of silver destabilising the currency.

why did local officials ignore court edicts demanding punishment of opium dealers

local officials accepted heavy bribes

what were two sides to the debate on Opium

- officials concerned about the economic cost of the silver drain and social costs of addiction argued stricter prohibitions

- southern coastal officials allied with mercantile interests included legalisation and taxation of the drug

what led to the appointment of Lin

Trade with China was opened to all comers and opium sales increased. In the 1820s, about 2 million taels of silver were flowing out of China each year; but by the early 1830s, the annual figure was 9 million taels.

when was Lin Zexu appointed

1838

what did the Emperor command Lin to do

ordered him to go to Canton as a specially appointed imperial commissioner to end the practice of the opium trade.

what was Lin's method of getting rid of the Opium

Lin tried to mobilise all the traditions of the Confucian state. In public proclamations, he emphasised the health dangers of opium consumption and ordered all smokers to hand over their opium and pipes to his staff within two months.

He also mobilised the local confuscian gentry to spot addicts in the community.

describe how successful Lin's initial campaign was

By mid-May 1839:

- over 1,600 Chinese had been arrested

- about 35,000 pounds of opium and 43,000 opium pipes had been confiscated

what suggests Lin was motivated by moral purposes

One remarkable example was a letter he sent to the young Queen Victoria asking her by what right did the British enforce a 'poisonous drug' on the Chinese people, a drug that was forbidden in Britain. 'Where is your conscience?' he asked

How was Lin's attempted Opium destruction naive

he demanded British merchants immediately surrunder stocks for destruction and expected a quick handover from Britain - they did not produce anything. He had never interacted with foreigners and thought a small gift of tea would be enough to subdue the traders whose Opium had been destroyed.

How did Lin ensure all Opium was handed over

proceeded to reinforce demand in dramatic ways. Two leading hong merchants (Howqua and Mowqua) were arrested and threatened with decapitation; trade in Canton was ordered stopped; Chinese servants and assistants were withdrawn from the foreign factories; and some 350 foreigners were essentially consigned to tedious, uncomfortable detention for what amounted to six weeks.

how was the opium destroyed

The opium balls were broken into pieces, dumped into the trenches, and stirred until dissolved, after which salt and lime were added, creating noxious clouds of smoke. The "foreign mud" was then diverted to the creek and washed out to sea.

describe the impact of UK parliamentary reform

1932 Reform Act changed the nature of the HOCs, merchants are represented en masse in parliament. Trade therefore becomes a priority.

How did the 1832 Reform Act affect the East India Company

it led to the abolishment of the East India Company's monopoly and meant there was an exponential growth in the Opium trade.

why was opening the trade to other merchants important for the Chinese

they were not experienced in Chinese customs and their inability to respect Chinese sovereignty quickly escalated tensions between british merchants and Qing court

why was the Opium trade of importance to merchants

because of the abolition of the slave trade in 1833.

why was the slave trade ending important for the government

they had to pay compensation for the slave traders.

The money from Opium was vital to pay for importing tea. Any serious disruption would disrupt Britains balance of payments.

who was Napier replaced by

George Elliot

How did language barriers make war more likely

foreign observers struggled to observe court debates accurately.

give examples of when there were misinterpretations of the Chinese

1838: misconception that there would be a full legalisation of the opium trade meant merchants stockpiled their supplies in Chinese warehouses. This followed from a misreading of the reports of discussions held between 1836 and 1838 at the Manchu court. While the Qing dynasty had in place decrees prohibiting the use of Opium, these had not been acted on consistently.

How did Lin force the British to hand over the Opium

He announced none of the British could leave Canton until all of their Opium was surrendered. He removed all Chinese servants and employees from the foreign trading compound and surrounded it with a cordon of soldiers. Within a couple of days Elliot intervened.

How much Opium were the British forced to hand over

20,283 chests containing more than 1300 tonnes of the raw drug.

How much power did Elliot have

he was chief superintendent of trade and was therefore responsible for the British merchants but had no actual power over them.

what order had Palmerston given Elliot regarding law

any British people who got into trouble for violating China's laws should suffer the consequences and receive no support from home.

How did Elliot disregard Palmerston's orders

When Lin Zexu imposed his lockdown on the foreign compound in Canton he panicked. The merchants themselves were not concerned, understanding they had previously received threats that never developed into anything serious. Elliot however feared if they did not obey immediately there would be dramatic consequences.

What was Elliot's solution

to buy all the Opium on behalf of the British government. They quickly got him to sign notes promising British government payments for the entire season

how much did Elliot agree to pay for the Opium

£2,000,000 - 20,283 chests

what did Palmerston appeal to parliament to do as a result of this debt

he was convinced parliament would never provide the funds so instead convinced the cabinet Britain should make China pay

what other demands did the British make

Hong Kong be ceded as a British colony and several ports be open to British trade.

describe who pressured Palmerston

Viscount Palmerston, the foreign secretary, had initial misgivings about becoming involved, but in the face of sustained lobbying by a large body of textile manufacturers in Britain, who feared losing their valuable Chinese markets, he gave way and ordered gunboats to be sent to Chinese waters.

give evidence that Lin is a symbol of resistance against foreign dominanion

- demanded that the British handed over their Opium stocks. Reinforced this with force: two leading Hong Kong merchants decapitated

- Opium destroyed as public spectacle

- systematic pursuit of destroying sources and equipment

describe evidence Lin is a reminder of a sad time in China's history and led to China's century of humiliation

- British used this seizure and destruction of the Opium to demand retaliation

- demonstrates example of misunderstanding of China's position in the world and relative weakness

- moral crusade lead directly to military failure

describe the character of the war

- blockades

- threat and counter-threat

- diplomacy

- land skirmishes

- naval battles

what were the Chinese casualties

20-25,000 Chinese deaths

500-700 British deaths

why were the British ousted from Macao

the British merchants refused to sign bonds pledging they would not indulge in any Opium traffic after penalty of Chinese law.

where did the British go after being expelled

Elliot settled his group on the almost deserted rocky island of Hong Kong.

what did Lin do in 1838 while the British were in Hong Kong

Lin continued to fortify the waterways into Canton, buying new cannon for the forts and immense chains to block the channel. And commencing the training and drilling of his forces.

what happened to the British in Hong Kong

The British who had retreated to Hong Kong were harried by the local Chinese, who poisoned many wells and refused to sell the foreigners food.

How did the issues in Hong Kong escalate

Armed clashes between British and Chinese war junks in Hong Kong harbour and in the Bogue outside Canton occurred in September and October 1839, with casualties on both sides.

How did Elliot respond to the Qing junks blocking British access to food and water

he dispatched Karl Gützlaff to hand a couple of letters to the authorities, stating that if the war junks did not withdraw, violence would result. Chinese representatives declined to take them, on the grounds that they were not empowered to do so.

after the chinese refused to communicate, what did Elliot do

say if he did not get the provisions in half an hour he would fire at the Qing ships. When the deadline came and went Elliot fired.

How did the junks respond to Elliot's fire

did not flee but returned the fire.

How significant was this first act of violence

it did not mean war was inevitable. After this incident, local traders were one again allowed to supply the British, although at slightly higher prices than before; and the signs marked 'Poison' disappeared from watering holes

How was a comprimise made following the first act of violence

Elliot offered Lin a compromise: officials could search newly arrived ships, and cargos that contained any opium would be confiscated

what acts as evidence this show of niceness was fake

Qing officials usually so wary of popular manifestations, Lin even encouraged mobilisation of local 'braves' against the British.

what had the british done in this period to make themselves more unpopular

grown even more unpopular since a group of drunken seaman had killed a Chinese villager of Kowloon, across from Hong Kong island, and Elliot had refused to hand the accused over to the Chinese courts.

How did the war first escalate

To Lin's annoyance they did not try to storm his defences, but contented themselves with leaving four ships to blockade the entrance to the harbour and sailing north with the bulk of their force.

what event led to the Charles Elliot's negotiation with Qishan

In July, the British blockaded Ningbo with two ships and seized the main town on the island of Zhoushan (Chusan) off the Zhejiang coast, from which they could interdict sea traffic to the Yangzi delat region. The fleet sailed on unopposed to the mouth of the Bai He (White River), near the Dagu forts that guarded the approaches to the city of Tianjin.

who was Qishan

the governor-general of the region, a senior Manchu and a grand secretary trusted by Emperor Daoguang

What was agreed in the negotiations in August and September 1840

Qishan persuaded the British to leave north China and return to Canton to complete the negotiations, for which he was lavishly praised by the emperor and named governor-general of Guangxi and Guangdong

In September 1840 how significant was Lin Zexu

Lin was dismissed for his inadequate policies and banished to Ili as the Emperor's favouritisms shifted to Qishan

What agreement was made in January 1841

Qishan reached an agreement with the British in which he:

-ceded up Hong Kong

- agreed to pay $6million in indemnities

- allowed the British direct official contacts with the Qing state - promised to reopen the Canton trade to them in 10 days.

How did the Emperor react to the January 1841 agreement

he ordered Qishan dismissed and executed, a sentence later commuted to banishment.

How did Commissioner Lin react

equally furious with Charles Elliot for not exacting better terms for the Chinese

what terms would Commissioner Lin have wanted from the Chinese

Palmerston was especially angry that Elliot had given up Zhouhsan, had not insisted on the repayment for the opium destroyed, and had merely gotten modified rights over Hong Kong.

Who replaced Elliot

Sir Henry Pottinger

What was Pottinger instructed to do by Palmerston

Palmerston insisted that the new agreement must be with the emperor himself.

when did Pottinger arrive in China

August 1841

what was the situation by august 1841

Pottinger reached China in August 1841 to find the situation even more volatile. There had been renewed fighting in the countryside around Canton, much of it by aroused bands of Chinese militia under local gentry leaders, and British troops had been killed and wounded.

How did British respond to the Chinese violence

The British had responded by destroying the Bogue forts, sinking Chinese junks, razing part of the waterfront, and occupying sections of Canton.

How successful had the British been in Canton

Although the British occupying troops subsequently withdrew from the city after Canton officials had paid them $6million, there was no agreement about whether this sum was a 'ransom' to save the city from sack, a response to the sum named in Elliot's earlier convention with Qishan, or recompense for the opium destroyed two years before.

What did Pottinger do

In late August 1841, Pottinger proceeded north with the British fleet, seizing Xiamen and Ningbo, and recapturing Zhoushan.

How did Pottinger further his success

When reinforcements reached him from India in late spring 1842, he launched a campaign to force Qing capitulation by cutting China's main river and canal communication routes. The British captured Shanghai in June and took Zhenjiang in July, even though the Manchus fought with savage desperation

How did the war affect the Chinese people

Scores of Qing officers committed suicide with their families when defeat was certain.

How were the Qing forced into peace

Pottinger, ignoring Qing requests for a parley, pushed on to the great city and former Ming dynasty capital of Nanjing, taking up attack positions outside the walls on August 5th.

when was the treaty of nanjing signed

August 29th 1842

give examples of blockades in the war

- 1838: fortification of waterways into Canton

- 1840, June: British blockaded Ningbo to stop sea traffic into Yangzi delta

- 1842: Traffic on grand canal and lower yangzi blocked in July 1842

give examples of threat and counter threat

1839: 4th September

British retreat to Hong Kong. Ultimatum from Elliot to fire on Qing ships is blockade of Qing junks not lifted.

Lin threatens to annihilate British on 28 Sept if refuse to hand over murder of Chinese official.

Use of braves.

give examples of land skirmishes

- 1840, July: British seize main town on the island of Chusan of the Zhejiang coast

- 1841, August: fighting in countryside around Canton - bands of Chinese militia kill British troops. British destroy bogue forts and occupy sections of Canton.

- 1842: In June capture Shanghai, July they capture Zhenjiang. British capture Nanjing in August.

give examples of naval battles

- Sep/October 1839: armed clashes between British and Chinese war junks in Hong-Kong harbour

- Aug/Sep 1840: Northern campaign to White river and Dagu forts

- late Aug 1841: Pottinger proceeds north seizing Xiamen and Ningbo

diplomacy in 1839

Lin allowed British to go back to Macao.

Peaceful communication between Elliot and Lin for a month in 1839.