SOCB42: Alexis De Tocqueville

Aristocratic Order

A social system based on fixed hierarchy, inherited status, and rigid social roles. People remain in the social class into which they were born, with little mobility

E.g., Feudal Europe: nobles, clergy, and peasants all had predetermined roles enforced by law, custom, and land ownership

• Tocqueville contrasts aristocracy with democracy to show what democracy destroys, preserves, and transforms as equality spreads.

Sources of Influence that Weaken the Aristocratic Order

Commerce, industry, revolutions, centralized administration, and intellectual changes gradually weaken hereditary privilege and promote equality.

E.g., The French Revolution shattered noble privilege; industrialization empowered commoners with wealth and influence

• These forces set the stage for the democratic age. Tocqueville sees democracy not as a random event but the long-term outcome of structural changes spanning centuries

Historical Causes of the Rise of Democracy

Democracy emerges from many historical developments, economic growth, literacy, religious forms, the breakdown of feudalism, and the rise of the bourgeoisie

E.g., In America, widespread land ownership and the absence of a feudal aristocracy made equality natural

• democracy is a historical trend, not an accident. Tocqueville believes understanding these causes is essential for managing its dangers and realizing its benefits

The Social State

The “social state” is deep structure of society — its values, habits, attitudes, and patterns of social life. In America, the social state is characterized by equality of conditions

E.g., Americans sees each other as equals, shift easily between occupations, and believe anyone can improve their status

• The social state shapes politics, culture, and morality; democracy is powerful because it transforms beliefs and relationships as well as institutions.

Tyranny of the Majority

In democracies, the majority can dominate so fully that individuals and minorities lose freedom, making public opinion oppressive.

E.g., A community ostracizing or punishing dissenters because they hold unpopular political or religious views

• The tyranny of the majority is more dangerous than aristocratic oppression because it is intangible, socially enforced, and psychologically coercive. It shapes habits of thought, not just law

Democratic politics

Democratic politics features broad participation, elected officials, frequent elections, and public-opinion dominance, making politics accessible to ordinary people.

E.g., America’s local elections, town meetings, jury service, and widespread civic participation

• Tocqueville views democracy as energetic and vibrant, yet prone to short-term thinking, instability, and mediocre leadership.

Internal Correctives to the Dangers of Democracy

Democracies prevent tyranny through decentralization, judicial independence, associations, free press, religion, and civic participation.

E.g., A free pass can challenge majority opinion; local governments give people practice in self-rule

• Tocqueville is not pessimistic — he believes democracy can restrain its own dangers if supported by strong institutions and civic habits

Administrative Decentralization

Local government retains significant power, allowing citizens to govern themselves through townships, municipalities, and small associations

E.g., New England town meetings where citizens vote directly on local issues

• Decentralization prevents over-centralization and fosters civic responsibility. It trains citizens in the practice of freedom and counters democratic passivity

Voluntary Associations

Groups formed by citizens to pursue shared interests — political, religious, economic, cultural, charitable, etc

E.g., A community organization formed to improve schools or fight poverty

• Associations counteract individualism, foster cooperation, balance state power, and teach democratic habits; Tocqueville calls them the “schools of democracy.”

Reflective Patriotism

A mature, thoughtful attachment to one’s country rooted in understanding, reasoning, and civic engagement rather than blind nationalism

E.g., Citizens who criticize their country’s flaws because they want to improve

• Reflective patriotism sustains democracy by fostering reasoned loyalty, especially where equality weakens traditional hierarchies.

Philosophy

Democratic people tend toward a practical, skeptical, and anti-metaphysical philosophy. Thy value common sense over abstract or aristocratic thought

E.g., Americans prefer useful knowledge (engineering, law, business) over speculative philosophy

• Democracy shifts intellectual life from hierarchy to practicality. While this broadens access to knowledge, it may diminish depth and complexity

Religion

Religion remains influential in democratic societies, not because of authority, but because it provides moral order, social cohesion, and limits to materialism

E.g., American Protestantism encouraged civic virtue and discouraged

• Religion counteracts democratic excesses, especially the pursuit of material self-interest. Tocqueville sees religion as essential for sustaining democracy’s moral fabric

Morality

Democratic morality emphasizes equality, empathy, and individual choice. People judge actions by their consequences and utility, not tradition

E.g., Americans value kindness, fairness, hard work, and self-reliance

• Democracy shifts moral authority from inherited norms to individual judgement, creating both flexibility and instability in moral life

Science

Democracies excel at practical and applied sciences — technology, engineering, mechanical innovation — rather than theoretical, aristocratic scientific inquiry

E.g., American ingenuity in agriculture, industrial technology, and inventions

• Democracy democratizes knowledge but may limit pursuit of abstract scientific truth

Craft Production

Democracy encourages mass production and standardization, reducing artisanal craft and specialized mastery

E.g., Factories replace individual craftsmen with assembly-line labor

• This mirrors Tocqueville’s concern that equality fosters mediocrity — crafts lost artistry as efficiency becomes the dominant value

Fine Arts

Democratic art favors accessible, relatable themes rather than aristocratic elegance and refinement

E.g., Realist novels focusing on everyday life rather than epic poetry

• Democracy broadens participation in the arts but may diminish artistic sophistication

Language

Democratic language becomes simple, direct, and utilitarian. Aristocratic ornamentation fades

E.g., American English toward plain speech and pragmatic expressions

• Language reflects the social state: equality simplifies communication and reduces hierarchy

Historiography

Democratic historians emphasize large structural forces (economics, social trends) rather than great individuals

E.g., A historian describing industrialization as the result of general conditions, not heroic leaders

• This aligns with democratic egalitarianism but may downplay individual agency

The Passion for Equality

A strong democratic desire for equality in social status, rights, and opportunity — often stronger than the desire for freedom

E.g., People prefer everyone to be equally poor rather than unequal, even if inequality raises total wealth

• This passion fosters justice and compassion but can lead to conformity, envy, and support for centralization

Individualism

A withdrawal from public life into private life; a tendency to focus on personal affairs rather than collective responsibilities

E.g., Citizens avoid political participation, preferring private comfort

• Individualism threatens democracy by weakening civic engagement and making people vulnerable to soft despotism and centralization

Civil Associations

Organizations created by citizens to pursue shared goals outside the state

E.g., Parent-teacher associations, volunteer groups, charitable societies

• Associations counteract individualism, strengthen social bonds, and maintain democratic freedom

Doctrine of Self-Interest Well Understood

Democratic citizens cooperate and act morally because they understand that helping others ultimately benefit themselves

E.g., People volunteer at schools or join civic groups because strong communities benefit everyone

• This doctrine provides a practical moral foundation for democracy — virtue emerges not from self-sacrifice but from enlightened cooperation

Sympathy

Democratic equality encourages people to identify with the needs and experiences of others

E.g., Americans donate to charity or help strangers in distress

• Sympathy transforms democratic social life, fostering solidarity but also benefiting from equality’s emotional currents

Etiquette

Democratic etiquette becomes informal, egalitarian, and friendly rather than ceremonious or aristocratic

E.g., Americans address each other casually instead of using titles

• Informality reflects democratic equality but may lead to loss of refinement or dignity

Service

Services between people become contractual rather than servile; people hire others but treat them as equals

E.g., A customer politely interacts with a waiter as a fellow citizen, not a social inferior

• Democracy transforms dependence into temporary, paid exchange — replacing aristocratic servitude with egalitarian interactions

Parents / Children

Democracy softens with authority in the family, making relationships more affectionate and equal

E.g., Parents reason with children instead of commanding them

• This shift reflects democracy’s broader rejection of hierarchy and shapes future generations’ understanding of equality

Cliques

Equality creates fluid social groups rather than rigid aristocratic circles

E.g., Americans change careers, move cities, and form new friend groups

• Democracy frees people from hereditary social circles but may weaken lasting bonds

Social Diversity

Democracy promotes social mobility and heterogeneity but also tends toward uniformity in manners and lifestyle

E.g., Americans from different backgrounds adopt similar habits and values

• Equality both expands diversity and compresses differences — a paradox Tocqueville analyzes deeply

Honour

Democratic honour is based on moral conduct and personal achievement, not birth or lineage

E.g., A self-made entrepreneur earns respect through effort, not family

• Democracy redefines honour in egalitarian terms but may weaken traditional values associated with aristocracy

Race

Tocqueville argues that race is America’s deepest contradiction; a democratic society built on equality nevertheless sustains racial domination

E.g., Slavery in the South and racial prejudice in the North coexist with democratic ideals

• Tocqueville predicts race will be the central struggle of American democracy — a profoundly prescient insight

Revolution

Democratic societies are prone to revolutions when equality disrupts traditional hierarchies and generates social instability

E.g., The French Revolution’s simultaneous push for equality and centralization

• Equality does not guarantee stability; it can unleash powerful transformative forces

Centralization

Democracies tend to centralize administrative power because equality weakens local authorities and pushes people toward the state

E.g., Citizens increasingly rely on federal government for social services, regulation, and infrastructure

• Centralization threatens freedom by weakening local self-government and encouraging soft despotism. Tocqueville sees decentralization and associations as the antidote