buried cities exam 2 (pt 1)

im gonna fucking kill myself

fertile crescent (where is it?)

A historical region in the Middle East, including parts of modern-day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan, known for its rich soils and early agricultural development.

Mesopotamia alluvial plain (where is it)

The flat region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in modern-day Iraq, recognized for its fertile land and role in early civilization development.

halaf period (key features)

A prehistoric timeframe in the Near East characterized by distinct pottery styles, early agricultural practices, and the establishment of permanent settlements.

ubaid period

An archaeological period in ancient Mesopotamia, primarily in southern Iraq, characterized by early urbanization, irrigation agriculture, and trade networks.

eridu (key characteristics, known for what period?)

An ancient Sumerian city in southern Mesopotamia, known for its significance during the Ubaid period and its early temple complexes, including the famous ziggurat.

Mesopotamian temples, plan, features, contents

Ancient structures built for worship in Mesopotamia, typically featuring a central courtyard, altar, and shrines, often adorned with intricate carvings and offerings.

uruk period (4000-3100 BC) - what changes?

A significant phase in ancient Mesopotamia marked by the emergence of large urban centers, advances in writing, and the development of complex social structures and trade networks.

bevel rim bowls, charateristics (why/how used?)

Bevel rim bowls are simple ceramic vessels from ancient Mesopotamia, characterized by their beveled edges. They were commonly used for serving rations, likely reflecting early administrative practices and standardized forms of measurement.

record keeping tech (bullae, cylinder seals)

Early Mesopotamian technologies: Bullae were hollow clay spheres used to enclose tokens, serving as accounting records for transactions. Cylinder seals were engraved cylindrical stones rolled onto wet clay to create unique impressions, used for authentication, ownership, and administrative sealing of documents and goods.

what does sealing signify?

administrative control, legal authentication, and personal identity

uruk expansion, evidence for and theories to explain

theories: an economic system driven by southern Mesopotamian cities seeking resources, the migration of colonists or traders, the spread of technology and ideas, and local populations adopting Uruk models

evidence: material culture, administrative technology, architecture, colonization, and production centers

tell hamoukar

evidence: evidence of destruction, warfare, early urbanization, a manufacturing center, social complexity, large-scale food preparation

significance: early urban warfare, challenging the traditional theory of civilization’s spread, importance of trade routes

definition of the city

In a narrower sense, a city can be defined as a permanent and densely populated place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks.

centralized vs. decentralized

centralized/coercive: single authority makes decisions, relies of authority (sometimes coercion or force) to make a plan, often results in uniform, planned, rigid aesthetic, less flexible and slower to adapt to changing conditions due to hierarchical approval processes, driven by efficiency, control, stability, ex: ancient egypt, roman empire, washington dc

decentralized/voluntary city formation: decisions distributed among various local authorities, relies on voluntary cooperation, leads to varied aesthetic, more flexible and quicker to respond to local needs/changes, driven by invididual autonomy, innovation, and local responsiveness, ex: ancient greece

why do cities form/grow

agriculture/food surplus, economic opportunities, political/social organization

early dynastic pd/sumerian states (3000-2350 BC) 

a time of competing Sumerian city-states in Southern Mesopotamia, such as Ur and Lagash, which were major political, economic, and religious centers. This era saw significant urbanization, the further development of cuneiform writing, and advances in technology like the potter's wheel and irrigation

militarism in ancient sumer

a significant aspect of its civilization, driven by frequent conflicts between city-states for resources like land and water, leading to a strong military organization

power in sumer. city states- unken, en, lugal, ensi

en= priest/lord

ensi: city ruler/governor (administration, justice, religious duties)

lugal: king (secular and military power)

unken: city ruler/ensi

enki, anu, and enkidu, membership and role/actions in main (ferry translation) gilgamesh poem

enki: god of water, warns utnapishtim to build a boat and save everything, preserving manking from enlil’s wrath

anu: sky god, instructs aruru to create enkidu to counterbalance gilgamesh’s oppressive rule

enkidu: man created from clay by goddess aruru to be an equal to gilgamesh and challenge his arrogance

royal graves of ur, puabi’s tomb

a collection of tombs from ancient Mesopotamia, the most famous being Queen Puabi's. It was discovered in 1925 and included a stone and mud-brick tomb with Puabi's skeleton, adorned with a gold headdress, jewelry, and a gold comb, all lying on a raised platform. A large "death pit" nearby contained the remains of dozens of servants, attendants, and animals, who were likely sacrificed to accompany her into the afterlife. 

cuneiform

one of the earliest known writing systems, developed in Mesopotamia around 3000 BCE. It used wedge-shaped marks made by pressing a reed stylus into a clay tablet to record information such as administrative records, literature, and historical accounts.

akkadian empire (2350-2150 BC)

the first known empire in history, centered in the city of Akkad in Mesopotamia. It was founded by Sargon of Akkad, who unified the Sumerian and Akkadian peoples under one rule and expanded the empire's territory from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea. The empire eventually collapsed due to a combination of factors, including invasions by the Gutians, changing climate conditions, and internal rivalries. 

sargon

the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire, known for his conquests of the Sumerian city-states in the 24th to 23rd centuries BC. He is sometimes identified as the first person in recorded history to rule over an empire

sumerian vs. akkadian languages

Sumerian is a language isolate with no known relatives (stopped around 2000 BCE), while Akkadian is a Semitic language related to modern Arabic and Hebrew (lasted longer)

Ur lll period (2100-2000 BC), main features

a time of cultural and administrative reform in ancient Mesopotamia, characterized by a highly centralized bureaucratic state and a Sumerian cultural renaissance. Key features include a complex, hierarchical administration, sophisticated economic and land management systems like the bala (rotation of tribute), a flourishing of literature, and impressive architectural projects like the Ziggurat of Ur. 

old babylonian pd, amorites

2000-1600 BC, dominated by the amorites, a semitic-speaking people from syria who rose to power after the collapse of the ur lll kingdom