RESEARCH METHODS 1 EXAM

Abstract- APA Formatting

A concise summary of the entire study (purpose, methods, results, and conclusions). Usually one paragraph (150–250 words).

Introduction -APA Formatting

Introduces the problem, reviews past research, explains the rationale, and states hypotheses.

Methods and Materials -APA Formatting

Describes participants, materials, and procedures—so others can replicate the study.

Results- APA Formatting

Reports the data and statistical outcomes, without interpretation

Discussion- APA Formatting

Interprets findings, relates them to hypotheses and previous research, and notes limitations/future directions.

References- APA Formatting

Lists all sources cited in the paper, alphabetized by the first author’s last name.

Simple Random Sampling -Sampling Methods

Everyone has an equal chance of being selected. EX: Random number generator.

Systematic -Sampling Methods

Selecting every nth person on a list (like every 5th). EX: if a population list has 100 people, you’d pick every 5th name till the end of the list

Cluster -Sampling Methods

Randomly selecting groups (clusters) rather than individuals. EX: Randomly picking neighborhoods.

Convenience -Sampling Methods

Selecting whoever is available. EX: shopping malls

Probability vs non-probability sampling -Sampling Methods

Probability uses random selection; non-probability does not. EX: Stratified vs Quota.

Independent Variable (IV) -Variables & Research Design

a variable manipulated by the researcher. EX: the amount of sunlight a plant receives.

Dependent Variable (DV) -Variables & Research Design

The response that is measured (to determine whether an independent variable has produced an effect). EX: the growth of a plant influenced by sunlight.

Confounding Variable -Variables & Research Design

a factor that covaries with the independent variable in such a way that we can no longer determine which one has caused the changes in the dependent variable. EX: a variable that affects both IV and DV, such as soil type affecting plant growth and sunlight.

Control Variable -Variables & Research Design

a factor in an experiment that is kept constant to ensure that it does not affect the outcome. EX: the amount of water given to each plant.

Internal Validity -Variables & Research Design

concerns the degree to which we can be confident that a study demonstrated that one variable had a causal effect on another variable. EX: ensuring that the independent variable is responsible for changes observed in the dependent variable, rather than extraneous factors.

External Validity -Variables & Research Design

concerns the generalizability of the findings beyond the present study. EX: the extent to which results can be applied to real-world settings or other populations.

Construct Validity -Variables & Research Design

concerns the issue of whether the constructs (the conceptual variables) that researchers claim to be studying are, in fact, the constructs that they truly are manipulating and measuring. EX: the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure, such as using IQ tests to assess intelligence.

Positive Correlation -Correlation & Hypothesis Testing

As one variable increases, so does the other. EX: height and weight often show a positive correlation.

Negative Correlation -Correlation & Hypothesis Testing

As one increases, the other decreases. EX: when temperature rises, the amount of ice decreases.

Correlation Coefficient -Correlation & Hypothesis Testing

Ranges from –1.00 to +1.00. Closer to ±1 = stronger. EX: perfect linear relationship between two variables.

Pearson’s r -Correlation & Hypothesis Testing

Used for interval/ratio data. EX: Measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

Spearman’s p (rho) -Correlation & Hypothesis Testing

Used for ordinal data. EX: Measures the strength and direction of a monotonic relationship between two variables.

Null Hypothesis (H₀) -Hypothesis Testing & Error

No effect or relationship. EX: the treatment does not influence the outcome in an experiment.

Alternative Hypothesis (H₁) -Hypothesis Testing & Error

There is an effect or relationship. EX: the treatment does influence the outcome in an experiment.

Type 1 Error (α) -Hypothesis Testing & Error

Rejecting a true null (false positive). EX: finding a significant effect when there is none.

Type 2 Error (β) -Hypothesis Testing & Error

Failing to reject a false null (false negative). EX: not finding a significant effect when there is one.

Survey Efficiency -Survey Research

Collects large amounts of data quickly and cheaply. EX: using online surveys or questionnaires.

Main Limitation -Survey Research

Cannot infer causation. EX: results may show correlation but not determine cause and effect.

Social Desirability Bias -Survey Research

Respondents answer in socially acceptable ways. EX: misleading responses due to the fear of judgment.

Question Types -Survey Research

- Likert Scale (Strongly Disagree → Strongly Agree)

- Leading/Loaded/Double-barreled = biased items

EX: descriptive: "What percentage of customers prefer online shopping over in-store shopping?"; comparative: "Do students in private schools perform better on standardized tests compared to those in public schools?"; and relational: "What is the relationship between disposable income and job satisfaction?". 

Spacing -APA Formatting

Double spaced throughout (2.0).

Sentence-ending space -APA Formatting

One space after punctuation. 

Font type -APA Formatting

12-point Times New Roman (also acceptable: 11 Calibri or Arial).

Running Head -APA Formatting

ALL CAPS at top of page (shortened title).

Abstract Length -APA Formatting

between 150 and 250 words

Numbers -APA Formatting

- Numbers starting a sentence → words .

- Time/age → numerals

Reference Page -APA Formatting

Alphabetized by first author’s last name.

In-Text Citations -APA Formatting

Use & within parentheses, and in narrative text.

Covariation -Cause & Validity Criteria

the measure of how much two variables change together. EX: As one variable increases, the other may increase or decrease, indicating a relationship between them.

Time-Order -Cause & Validity Criteria

chronological order, which is the arrangement of events in the sequence they occurred, from earliest to latest. EX:  interrupted time-series studies (examining effects before and after a single event), longitudinal studies (tracking the same subjects over time), and within-subjects designs (measuring the same person under different conditions at different times).

Elimination of Alternatives -Cause & Validity Criteria

No confounding variables. EX: Designing an experiment where only the independent variable is manipulated while controlling all other variables, ensuring that any observed effects are directly attributable to the independent variable.