Chapter 11 - sustainable management of transport systems

What are the two main ways transport systems impact the environment in cities?

They change the physical environment and increase the carbon footprint.

Why does transport development change the physical environment?

Transport systems require physical space, which changes the physical environment

How do we improve accessibility? What does this do to the environment?

Natural vegetation may be cleared to build roads. Road developments can divide forests into smaller fragments, reducing the size of animal habitats and restricting animal movement.

When animals try to cross busy roads to get to the other side of the forest, they become victims of roadkill after they collide with vehicles.

What is the solution to solve this? Examples?

Creating overpasses or wildlife corridors.

Eco-Link@BKE → built to restore a connection between Bukit Timah Nature Reserve and Central Catchment Nature Reserve, as the isolation of flora and fauna adversely affected biodiversity and threatened endangered forest species in Singapore. Pangolins and palm civets have used this link.

What can reduce roadkill caused by habitat fragmentation?

Overpasses or wildlife corridors.

What else do roads do to the environment?

Landforms like slopes, mountains and river channels have to be modified to enable movement over different topographies and terrains.

What are examples of such?

 In order to make downtown Singapore more accessible, part of the Singapore River was temporarily diverted for the construction of the MRT tunnels connecting Downtown Line stations, Fort Canning and Chinatown. The original waterway was restored after the completion of the tunnels.

What is another major environmental impact of transport systems?

Increased carbon footprint.

Why is the carbon footprint formed by transport?

All transport activities consume some form of energy: electricity, biofuel or petroleum.

When petrol is burnt to provide energy, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are produced. This increases our carbon footprint

What is a carbon footprint?

The measure of greenhouse gases emitted to support human activities.

Why is greenhouse gases harmful?

They trap heat and keep the Earth warm. Excessive concentrations of these gases results enhanced greenhouse effect and global warming

What greenhouse gas is emitted frequently by cars, why and how is it formed.

Carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.

Car engines are powered by petroleum, a fossil fuel. Carbon from fossil fuel combines with oxygen during the combustion process which powers car engines; carbon dioxide is produced and emitted into the atmosphere.

Methane and nitrous oxide are also produced by cars. Air conditioning in cars may produce hydrofluorocarbons.

Approximately what percentage of greenhouse gas emissions comes from transport activities? Why is this concerning?

25–30%.

As cities grow and transport systems expand, the carbon footprint increases. As people become increasingly reliant on transport systems for their daily commute and travel, there is a need to consider different transport modes to reduce the carbon footprint.

What are examples of transport modes?

Buses, trains, airplanes and cars.

What are the three main ways transport systems impact people in cities?

Improved mobility, traffic congestion, and health and safety risks.

Transport systems are important because___? But why can this be bad?

They enable our everyday mobility. As cities expand, traffic congestion becomes more frequent, frustrating drivers and passengers. Health and safety risks associated with transport systems are increasingly a concern among those living in cities.

What is mobility?

The ability of people and freight to move from place to place.

Why is mobility important?

It provides access to basic goods and services. It also facilitates social interactions that are necessary for our emotional well-being

What can limit a person's mobility?

Physical capabilities and health-related conditions.

Which groups may face mobility limitations?

The elderly and persons with disabilities (PWDs)

Who are persons with disabilities (PWDs)? What do they face?

People with long-term intellectual, physical or sensory impairments.

They often face barriers that hinder them from carrying out daily activities or prevent them from having equal access to opportunities that are available.

What mobility problem may elderly people face?

They may require more time and support to move around.

What are some solutions?

The provision of age-friendly and barrier-free transport systems enables the elderly and PWDs to move around and access opportunities independently, thereby improving their mobility.

 Extended pedestrian crossing time for the elderly or PWDs (Green Man Plus)

- Installation of lifts

- Tactile indicators (yellow/silver tiles)

- Wheelchair ramp

- Silver zones 

What are tactile indicators used for?

To assist people with visual impairments in navigating.

What transport feature improves access for wheelchair users?

Wheelchair ramps.

What classifies a silver zone?

1. High proportion of senior residents

2. high accident rates involving senior pedestrians

3. close proximity to amenities frequented by seniors

What are Silver Zones intended to improve?

Mobility and safety for elderly people.

What are some features silver zones provide?

1. Gateway marked with bright fluorescent signs and yellow-painted road strips to indicate the start of a Silver Zone

2. Reduced speed limit of 40km/h

3. Reduction of lanes at some road sections to shorten the crossing distance and reduce the time taken to cross roads.

4. Two-stage crossing that allows senior pedestrians to rest in the middle of a crossing

• 2019 accident rates reduced almost by 75% WITHIN 15 SILVER ZONES ACROSS SINGAPORE.

When does traffic congestion occur?

When road usage approaches or exceeds road capacity.

When does traffic congestion tend to occur?

During peak periods

1. when many people rush to school and work in the mornings (7-9am)

2. are on their way from work in the evenings (5-7pm)

Where is congestion commonly found in cities?

Roads leading to and from the CBD, such as major expressways.

What are three indicators of traffic congestion? What does this do?

Slow-moving vehicles, high traffic volume and slow speed. This increases travelling time.

How can traffic congestion affect physical well-being?

Affect the physical well-being

(may tire out both drivers and passengers → lose concentration → increasing risks of accidents)

Explanation: Affect the emotional well-being

(become frustrated and display aggressive behaviour → road rage → injuries)

How does congestion increase carbon footprint? This causes?

Vehicles burn the most fuel while accelerating. When vehicles remain stationary or constantly start and stop due to traffic congestion, more fuel is burned and wasted. This translates to higher carbon dioxide emissions, an increased carbon footprint and worsened air quality

What is released when fuel is burnt to power transport modes? Why is this concerning?

Harmful air pollutants and particulate matter. This can lead to severe pollution produced by vehicle exhaust, power plants and factories, called smog. This increases health risk, causing respiratory problems like breathing difficulty, asthma, eye irritation, lung infection and a higher risk of lung cancer

Vehicle emissions caused 5000 premature deaths in UK, over 53000 premature deaths in US (annually)

What is smog?

A combination of smoke and fog caused by exhaust and particles from cars and factories.

If particulate matter is small (less than PM 10 and PM 2.5), what can happen?

Penetrate deep into lung passageways and enter the bloodstream, causing serious cardiovascular and respiratory damage.

Why is traffic noise becoming a bigger problem? Why is this concerning?

People are increasingly reliant on transport modes. Excessive noise can disturb sleep, reduce work performance, provoke annoyance, cause mental stress, result in hearing impairment and even trigger heart-related illness.

What percentage of transport accidents are road accidents on average? What implications does this have?

90%. Transport accidents have implications for healthcare, insurance, and damage to property and life.

How can we reduce this?

Measures such as

1. Regulating the use of mobile devices while driving

2. Setting up more speed cameras to deter and detect speeding

3. Road safety education aimed at promoting safety among all road users

→ promote safety

Why is public transport sometimes dangerous? 2x instances.

Public transport can become overcrowded, especially during peak hours, → increase the risk of crimes such as theft and outrage of modesty.

• Some cities (e.g. Japan) have designed gender-segregated transportation.

Terminals may also become targets of many terrorist attacks due to their visibility and significance. The growth in passenger traffic means more resources need to be deployed to safeguard the well-being of passengers at these terminals.

What two broad approaches are used to manage transport systems sustainably?

Managing transport demand and improving transport supply.

What are the four main strategies for managing transport systems sustainably?

Laws and policies, integrated land use and transport planning, provision of a range of mobility options, and research and development.

Why are transport laws and policies needed as cities grow?

As cities continue to grow and attract people, there is a need for laws and policies to ensure road safety.

What are five examples of transport laws and policy approaches in the notes?

Road safety campaigns

Car-lite policies

Constraining vehicle ownership and road usage

Increasing public transport supply

and promoting environmentally friendly transport.

What is the purpose of road safety campaigns? Example?

To raise awareness and educate all road users on practising good road safety habits.

Singapore Road Safety Council and the Singapore Police Force published road safety posters to educate road users on good road safety habits.

What are car-lite policies? Example?

Policies that reduce car usage by encouraging alternatives like public transport and active mobility, such as walking and cycling.

Since February 2018, Singapore has adopted a zero vehicle growth stance for all private motor vehicles. This means the private vehicle population is capped and cannot grow further. Limiting vehicle growth reduces the need to increase Singapore’s road capacity.

What is the purpose of constraining vehicle ownership and road usage?

To reduce transport demand.

Example?

Singapore introduced the Certificate of Entitlement (COE) in 1990 as a form of vehicle quota system.

Anyone who wishes to own a new vehicle must first bid for a COE, which gives the owner the right to own and use the vehicle for 10 years, after which the COE may be renewed, or the vehicle must be scrapped or exported.

COE is an additional cost to the price of the new vehicle and can sometimes exceed the value of the car itself. Making car ownership in Singapore very expensive.

What is road pricing or congestion pricing?

Charging drivers to use certain roads during specific periods.

What are the aims of road pricing?

Manage congestion, shape travel behaviour and raise transport revenue.

When are road pricing charges usually imposed?

During peak hours.

How does congestion pricing influence travel behaviour?

It makes driving more expensive than public transport.

One example?

Electronic Road Pricing (ERP)

Road pricing, or congestion pricing, is a strategy to manage road congestion, shape travel behaviour and raise revenue to finance the transport system.

Drivers are charged a premium when they use certain roads during specific time periods (usually peak hours). This makes driving costlier compared to using public transport.

As of May 2021, there are 78 ERP gantries in Singapore.

What are the benefits and challenges of such ERPs?

• Reduce congestion at certain stretches of road +

- Traffic is directed elsewhere instead -

- Regulations on road usage have to be tightly enforced to ensure effectiveness -

Cities are also increasing the supply of public transport. Explain.

Cities are also increasing the supply of public transport and promote the use of other environmentally friendly transport modes. People are likely to change their travel habits when they find it costly to own or use private transport, and travelling by public transport, bicycle or foot is deemed more efficient and affordable.

Example?

Singapore Land Transport Authority (LTA) has published the Land Transport Master Plan (LTMP) 2013 and planned to include more MRT lines, trains and buses by 2030. This will bring commuters to more places, in less time. (more convenient)

Promote the use of other environmentally friendly transport mode. Explain

People are likely to change their travel habits when they find it costly to own or use private transport (COE and ERP). People are also more likely to travel by public transport, bicycle or foot when it is deemed more efficient and affordable. (promote uses of Public transport, encouraging use of environmentally friendly transport mode)

Example?

Singapore’s Land Transport Master Plan (LTMP) 2013 will build a more extensive cycling path network (over 700 km) to make it easier getting around by bicycle.

This encourages commuters to travel by bicycle, which is an environmentally friendly transport mode. (reduces carbon foot print)

What is integrated land use and transport planning intended to do?

Reduce the need for travel.

What is land use planning? What is its importance?

Refers to where and how land should be used.

It shapes the demand for travel and distance needed to travel.

What are the 3 types of places

Residential

Commercial

Entertainment/leisure

Example?

For example, business parks and commercial centres are planned near residential areas, the need for long distance commute is reduced.

What is transport planning?

Process of forecasting the operation, provision and management of various transport infrastructure and services to meet current and future usage needs.

Some decisions made are?

Where to build trains stations / bus stops, bus routes, overhead bridges etc

What does good transport planning aim to achieve?

Good planning ensures that transport facilities and services are able to move people and goods in a safe, affordable, convenient and environmentally friendly manner.

Integrated land use and transport plans aims to

- Create well-planned towns and cities;

- Grow business and employment opportunities;

- Increase educational opportunities

- Increase healthcare and recreational options; and

- Reduce passenger travel times and frequent single trips.

CGIIR

What is Singapore's Land Transport Master Plan (LTMP)?

A long-term plan to shape the future of land transport.

It aims to:

- Develop a transport network that is convenient, well-connected and fast.

- Develop inclusive infrastructure (Cater to the different needs of people)

- Promote gracious behaviours

- Enable safer journeys by public transport

What is the key travel-time aim of LTMP 2040?

Develop “20-minute towns” and a “45-minute city.”

- Journeys made using public, active and shared modes of transport to

neighbourhood centres and across the city to be completed within 20

minutes and 45 minutes respectively during peak hours.

What does the LTMP include plans for?

a. Expand the MRT network to 360 km to 2030;

b. Have 80% of households live within a 10-min walk of a train station;

c. And develop 20-min town rides and 45-min city rides using shared modes of transport

By 2040, journeys made between and across towns and the city centre during peak periods can be completed within 20 min and 45 min respectively

→ better rail connectivity in 2040.

What does it require?

Close coordination and communication between different stakeholders to balance social, economic and transport needs. It takes time and involves huge investments in infrastructure design and development.

Example?

Encouraging active mobility, designing and developing pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure is key. The walkable distance from a location, known as pedestrian shed, is usually defined as a 5-minute or 400-metre walk. Having wide, shaded paths with attractive building facades and shopfronts within the pedestrian shed helps to provide comfortable walking experiences.

What is an active mode of transport?

Cycling, walking and other physical modes of travel.

What is a shared mode of transport?

Ride-sharing, car-sharing or bike-sharing.

What can limit people's mobility according to the notes?

Constraints imposed by physical capability, health-related conditions, transport costs, transport system designs and availability of transport modes can limit the mobility of people.

How can poorly designed transport infrastructure affect vulnerable groups?

Poorly designed transport infrastructure and the inconvenience of travelling can prevent the elderly, wheelchair users and persons with disabilities (PWDs) from travelling, causing some of them to isolate themselves.

What is the strength of such barrier-free transport facilities?

 Provision of barrier-free transport facilities is important in developing inclusive transport systems that cater to diverse mobility needs.

What is a challenge of providing barrier-free transport facilities?

 Expensive to install the barrier-free transport facilities with special features for the aged and disabled

Link?

Therefore, it is important to ensure that the special features are deployed effectively to areas that are most needed to prevent wastage of resources.

Example?

Green Man+ scheme: implemented to give elderly pedestrians and PWDs up to 13 seconds more green man time when crossing the road.

Pedestrian audio signal have been introduced to aid the visually impaired. Traffic lights equipped with the audio signal function emit beeping sounds to help the visually impaired cross the road. The volume of the audio signals is adjusted based on the noise level of the surrounding environment.

Why do cities invest in transport research and development?

To make transport systems more sustainable.

What are three areas of transport R&D?

Mobile applications to improve mobility

Safer and more environmentally friendly transport modes

Greener building materials and techniques

What are some R&D things in transport?

My Transport SG app

BlueSG electric cars.

Electric vehicles.

Why can electric vehicles be more sustainable than conventional vehicles?

They have a smaller carbon footprint as compared to conventional vehicles and they help to reduce noise pollution because they produce less noise on the road.

Example of electric vehicle scheme in singapore?

The first fleet of fully electric buses was introduced in 2020 and the authorities

are looking into expanding the number of electric buses in service.

What is a major disadvantage of electric vehicles?

EVs are more expensive than conventional vehicles. Cost twice as much as a conventional diesel bus.

Why is further EV research and development needed?

To reduce costs so EVs can play a larger role in public transport.

What is another potential solution to modern transport problems?

Autonomous or driverless vehicles.

Benefits of autonomous vehicles?

Uses a suite of sensors to detect other vehicles and pedestrians. → Could potentially prevent road accidents and improve road safety.

Uses fuel-efficient technology that reduces emissions and energy consumption.

Weaknesses of autonomous vehicles?

Requires huge amounts of investment and is time-consuming.

Safety and cybersecurity challenges

Conclusion?

Each management strategy has its benefits and challenges. Cities should consider their unique situations and adopt a combination of strategies to manage transport systems sustainably.

Cities should continually review the measures adopted in order to adapt to the changing environment and challenges that they may face in the future.