Learning Theories and Developmental Psychology Concepts

Learning

Process of acquiring new knowledge or skills.

Habituation

Decreased response to repeated, benign stimuli.

Associative Learning

Learning that involves linking two events together.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others' behaviors.

Acquisition

Initial stage of learning a new response.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association between stimuli.

Pavlov

Conducted experiments on classical conditioning with dogs.

Watson

Studied behaviorism; famous for Little Albert experiment.

Neutral Stimulus

Stimulus that initially elicits no response.

Conditioned Stimulus

Previously neutral stimulus that triggers response after conditioning.

Unconditioned Stimulus

Stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

Conditioned Response

Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

Responding similarly to similar stimuli.

Counterconditioning

Changing the response to a stimulus by pairing it with a new stimulus.

Aversive Conditioning

Conditioning to avoid an unpleasant stimulus.

Renewal

Recovery of conditioned response after extinction in a different context.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period.

Placebo Effect

Improvement due to belief in treatment rather than treatment itself.

Little Peter Experiment

Study demonstrating counterconditioning with a child and rabbits.

Extinction

Diminishing of a conditioned response when unconditioned stimulus is absent.

Extinction Burst

Temporary increase in behavior before extinction occurs.

Conditioned Taste Aversion

Avoidance of a food after a negative experience.

Biological Preparedness

Innate readiness to form associations between certain stimuli.

Discrimination

Ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

Higher Order Conditioning

Conditioning where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on the consequences of behavior.

Primary Reinforcer

Innately satisfying stimulus, like food or water.

Secondary Reinforcer

Learned value through association with primary reinforcers.

Delayed Reinforcement

Reward given after a delay following a behavior.

Immediate Reinforcement

Reward given immediately after a behavior.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior every time it occurs.

Intermittent Reinforcement

Reinforcing behavior only some of the time.

Reinforcement Schedules

Rules determining how and when reinforcement is delivered.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Token Economy

System using tokens as reinforcers for desired behaviors.

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors that approximate the desired behavior.

Chaining

Linking together multiple behaviors to form a sequence.

Premack Principle

More preferred activities can reinforce less preferred ones.

Learned Helplessness

Condition where individuals feel unable to change their situation.

Applied Behavior Analysis

Therapeutic approach using behavior principles to modify behavior.

Punishment

Consequences that decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Types of Punishment

Includes positive punishment and negative punishment.

Disadvantages of Punishment

Can lead to fear, aggression, and avoidance.

Thorndike

Developed the Law of Effect through puzzle box experiments.

Purposive Behavior

Behavior directed towards achieving specific goals.

Tolman

Conducted experiments on latent learning with rats.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately evident.

Insight Learning

Sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire when observing others perform actions.

Violent Video Games

Research shows correlation with increased aggression.

APA Conclusion

2015 report linked violent games to aggression.

Spanking Research

Suggests negative long-term effects on behavior.

Punishment Effectiveness

Often ineffective; can lead to negative outcomes.

Chronological Age

Actual age measured in years.

Developmental Age

Age based on developmental milestones achieved.

Longitudinal Study

Research studying the same subjects over time.

Cross-Sectional Study

Research comparing different age groups at one time.

Identical Twins

Twins from one fertilized egg; genetically identical.

Fraternal Twins

Twins from two separate fertilized eggs.

Monozygotic

Term for identical twins.

Dizygotic

Term for fraternal twins.

Continuous Development Theory

Suggests gradual development over time.

Discontinuous Development Theory

Suggests development occurs in distinct stages.

Germinal Phase

First two weeks of prenatal development.

Fetal Stage

Final stage of prenatal development, from 9 weeks.

Embryonic Stage

Second stage of prenatal development, from 2 to 8 weeks.

Prenatal Development Obstacles

Factors like teratogens that hinder healthy development.

Age of Viability

Age when a fetus can survive outside the womb.

Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

Withdrawal symptoms in newborns from drug exposure.

Synaptic Pruning

Process of eliminating unused neural connections.

Teratogens

Substances causing developmental abnormalities in fetuses.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder

Disorders caused by alcohol exposure during pregnancy.

Drinking While Pregnant

No safe amount of alcohol during pregnancy.

Smoking During Pregnancy

Increases risk of low birth weight and complications.

Piaget's Stages

Cognitive development stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

Reflexes in Infants

Automatic responses assessed to gauge development.

Vygotsky

Proposed social interaction as key to cognitive development.

Harlow's Research

Studied attachment using rhesus monkeys and surrogate mothers.

Strange Situation

Assessment of attachment styles in children.

Attachment Styles

Patterns of attachment: secure, anxious, avoidant.

Parenting Styles

Includes authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful.

Erikson

Developed psychosocial stages of development.

Use It or Lose It

Implying importance of brain activity during adolescence.

Kohlberg's Moral Reasoning

Theory outlining stages of moral development.

Heinz Dilemma

Ethical dilemma used to study moral reasoning.

Emerging Adulthood

Developmental stage from late teens to mid-20s.

Exercise in Older Adults

Research shows benefits for health and longevity.

Happiness Factors

Income level, health, and social relationships influence happiness.

Adolescence Age

Typically occurs between ages 12 to 18.

Puberty

Biological changes leading to sexual maturity.

Adolescent Brain

Undergoes significant development and changes during this period.

Piaget's Adolescent Development

Proposed formal operational stage for abstract thinking.

Identity Status Theory

Framework for understanding adolescent identity development.

Average Life Expectancy

Typical lifespan for individuals in a population.

Dementia

Decline in cognitive function affecting daily life.