Non-Christian Historical References to Early Christianity

A set of vocabulary flashcards detailing primary ancient Jewish and Roman historical figures and their written works referencing Jesus and early Christians.

Flavius Josephus

A first-century Jewish priest, military commander, and historian (c. 37–100 AD) captured by the Romans during the First Jewish-Roman War who became a Roman citizen under Emperor Vespasian.

Testimonium Flavianum

A passage in Book 18 of Antiquities of the Jews where Flavius Josephus refers to Jesus as a wise man and a doer of wonderful works who was crucified under Pontius Pilate.

Antiquities of the Jews (Book 20)

A work by Flavius Josephus that refers to the execution of James, describing him explicitly as "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ."

Publius Cornelius Tacitus

A prominent Roman senator, orator, governor of Asia, and historian (c. 56–120 AD) who wrote Annals and Histories.

Annals (Book 15, Chapter 44)

A text by Tacitus written c. 116 AD describing Nero blaming Christians for the Great Fire of Rome (64 AD), confirming that "Christus" was executed by Pontius Pilate during the reign of Tiberius.

Pliny the Younger

A Roman lawyer, magistrate, governor of Bithynia-Pontus (c. 61–113 AD), and nephew/adopted son of Pliny the Elder who authored Epistulae (Letters).

Letters (Book 10, Letter 96)

Correspondence written c. 112 AD by Pliny the Younger asking Emperor Trajan for advice on legal trials against Christians, noting their pre-dawn worship of "Christ as to a god."

Suetonius

A Roman historian, biographer, and chief secretary to Emperor Hadrian (c. 69–122 AD) who authored De Vita Caesarum (The Lives of the Twelve Caesars).

Life of Claudius (Chapter 25)

A passage by Suetonius recording that Emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome because of constant disturbances "at the instigation of Chrestus."

Life of Nero (Chapter 16)

A passage by Suetonius describing punishment inflicted on Christians, defining them as "a class of men given to a new and mischievous superstition."