PSYCH 289 FINAL EXAM ATHABASCA UNIVERSITY

What are the three goals of the scientific enterprise?

1.) Measurement and Description

2.) Understanding and Prediction

3.) Application and Control

Define Hypothesis, Variables, and Theory

Hypothesis - is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

Variables - are any measurable conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviours that are controlled or observed in a study

Theory - is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations

Describe the 5 steps in scientific investigations

1.) Form a testable hypothesis

2.) Select the research method and design the study

3.) Collect the data

4.) Analyze the data and draw conclusions (stats)

5.) Report the findings

operational definition

describes the actions or operations that will be used to measure or control a variable

Two advantages of the scientific approach

1.) Clarity and Precision

2.) Relative intolerance of error

Experimental group

Refers to the group of subjects who receive special treatment in regard to the independent variable

Control group

refers to the group of similar subjects that are not exposed to the special treatment

Extraneous Variables

refer to any other variables other than the independent variables

Confounding of variables

refers to two variables that are connected in a way that make it difficult to determine their specific effects

Between-subjects

involves two separate groups of subjects that are exposed to a manipulation of an independent variable

Within-subjects

involves one group of subjects that are exposed to two different conditions - experimental and control, for study of the effects of the independent variable

Advantage of experimental method

Permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables

Disadvantage of experimental method

Experiments are often artificial and are limited in the scope of exploration factors that cannot be manipulated

Three descriptive research methods

1.) Naturalistic observation

2.) Case Studies

3.) Surveys

Advantage of descriptive research

provides methods to explore questions that cannot be examined with experiments

Disadvantage of descriptive research

researches cannot control events to isolate cause-and-effect // cannot demonstrate that two variables are casually related

Define naturalistic observation

behaviour is studied in natural environment without direct intervention; reactivity may occur when behaviour is altered by presence of an observer

Define case studies

in-depth investigation of a subject (interviews, direct observation, examination of records, psychological testing, etc.) and is high subjective

Define surveys

questionnaires or interviews to gather information about certain aspects of a subject's behaviour; can collect data from large samples of participants, and obtain information on aspects of behaviour that are difficult to observe directly; depend on self-reported data, sampling bias is possible

Discuss central tendency

Median - exact middle value

Mean - calculated average value

Mode - most frequent value

Frequency distribution

indicates the frequency of scores

Symmetrical frequency distribution

when measures of central tendency fall together

positively skewed distribution

when scores pile up on the low end

variability

measures how much the scores in a set vary from each other and the mean

Standard deviation

refers to the index of the amount of variability in a set of data

Relative measures

assess how people score on a particular trait compared to one another

A percentile score

refers to the percentage of people score at or below a particular score

Infernal Statistics

interpret data and draw conclusions

Statistical significance

exists when probability that observed findings are due to chance, in LOW

Replication

when a study is repeated to compare earlier results. It is useful in scientific progress because cond

Meta-analysis

a combination of results of many studies. It provides an estimate of size and consistency of a variables effects, and its precise and objective, can test generability

Describe the flaws in psychological research

Sampling bias: when a sample is not representative of a population

Placebo effects: expectations lead them to experience some change even when they have not received any treatment

Distortions: in self-report data: social desirability bias, misunderstood questions, memory errors, response sets, halo effect

Experimenter bias: expectations influence the results

Social desirability bias

refers to providing answers that are socially acceptable, and not genuine

Double-blind

neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups. This procedure is useful to neutralize experimenter bias

Why is deception in psychological research controversial?

Lying is immoral

Undermines trust in others

Produces stress

Made to feel foolish

What are the limitations of anecdotal evidence

- Resembles a single case study, cannot be used to generalize

- Similar to self-report data and can be distorted, social desirability bias

- Similar to self-report data and can be distorted, social desirability bias

- Inaccurate and embellished, hearsay memory issues

Glia Cells

cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons

- smaller than neurons

- Supply nourishment to neurons; help remove waste products and provide insulation around many axons

Neurons

individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate and transmit information

The soma (cell body)

contains the cell's nucleus and much of the chemical machinery common to most cells

Dendrites

Are the parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information

Axons

A long, thin fibre that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

Insulating material derived from glial cells that incases some axons

Synapses

a junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another

Neural impulse

is the signal that moves through the neurons. A neuron is stimulated by another neuron or by a stimulus in the environment. The cell membranes begin to change the flow of ions and a reversal of charges, the action potential, and results

Resting potential

is its stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive (roughly 7tt millivolts)

Action potential

a very brief shift in a neuron's electrical charge that travels along an axon

Absolute Refractory Period

- is the minimum length of time after an action potential during which another action potential cannot begin. Only about one or two milliseconds

The All or None Law

When a neuron fires, it van only fire all the way and there is no stopping it. A neuron cannot fire half-way

Synaptic Cleft

a microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron

Presynaptic neuron

the neuron that sends a signal across the gap

Postsynaptic neuron

the neuron that receives the signal

Neurotransmitter

Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another

Synaptic vesicle

within the buttons, most of the chemical are stored in small sacs (synaptic vesicle)

Postsynaptic potentials

a voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane

Excitatory PSP

a positive voltage shift that increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials

Inhibitory PSP

A negative voltage shift that decreased the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials

Reuptake

a process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane

Synaptic pruning

Synaptic pruning is the elimination of old or less-active synapses, and it is a key process in the formation of the neural networks that are crucial to communication in the nervous system

How many neurotransmitters are there?

There are 7 main major neurotransmitters however, in general there are over 100 neurotransmitters. The 7 main neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, histamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin

Acetylchloine

Activates motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles contributes to the regulation of attention arousal, and memory. Some ACh receptors stimulated by nicotine

Agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

A chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter

Monomines

include 3 neurotransmitters such as dopamine norepinephrine, and serotonin

Define Dopamine

Dopamine controls voluntary movements, pleasurable emotions. Overactive dopamine synapses are associated with schizophrenia

Define Norepinephrine

It contributes to modulation of mood and arousal. Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity of dopamine and norepinephrine

Define Serotonin

Serotonin is involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, aggression. Abnormal levels can contribute to depression and obsessive compulsive disorder

GABA

Serves as widely distributes inhibitory transmitter, regulates anxiety and sleep

Glycine

Is an amino acid transmitter

Glutamate

Another amino acid transmitter, best known for its role in memory

Morphine

Is an endorphin that effects by binding to specialized receptors in the brain. The nervous systems have morphine like systems and morphine can relieve pain

Endorphins

Internally produce chemicals and resemble opiates in structure and effects

They also contribute to pain relief and may modulate eating and stress reactions

What is the organization of the nervous system?

You have the central nervous system (CNS, brain and spinal cord) and the Peripheral nervous system

The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord ONLY

However, the peripheral nervous system is made up of all those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord

Define the two parts of the peripheral nervous system

There is the...

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

AND

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Define the function of somatic nervous system

This is the voluntary movements, afferent (incoming) nerves and efferent (outgoing) nerves

The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors. The nerves are the cables that carry information from receptors to the CNS and the CNS brings it to the muscles

Define the autonomic nervous system

This is the involuntary movements, sympathetic division (mobilizes resources) and Parasympathetic division (conserves resources)

The ANS is made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, and smooth muscle and glands. the ANS control automatic, involuntary, visceral functions that people don't normally think about such as heart rate, digestion, and perspiration

What are afferent nerve fibres?

Afferent nerve fibres are axons that carry information inward to the CNS to the periphery of the body

What are efferent nerve fibres?

Efferent nerve fibres are axons that carry information outward from the CNS to the periphery of the body

What is the fight or flight response?

When organisms generally respond to threat by preparing physiologically for attacking (fight) or fleeing (flight) from the enemy. (apart of the ANS)

Identify and describe the two branches of the autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic division - the branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body's resources for emergencies

Parasympathetic division - is the branch of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources

Describe the biology of the central nervous system

The CNS is the portion of the nervous system that lies within the skull and spinal column, it is protected by enclosing sheaths called the meninges. In addition, the CNS is bathed in its own special nutritive "soup" called the cerebrospinal fluid

Meninges

Meninges line the skull and vertebral canal enclose the brain and spinal cord

Cerebrospinal fluid

nourishes the brain and provides a protective cushion for it

Ventricles

are the hollow cavities in the brain that are filled with CSF

What is the spinal cord and what does it do?

The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body through the PNS. The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. The spinal cord houses bundle of axons that carry the brain's commands to peripheral nerves and they relay sensations from the peripheral nerves

Describe the physical characteristics of the brain

The brain weighs only 1.5 KB and the cerebrum is the largest part of the brain

What is an electroencephalograph? (EEG) and how is used to study brain functions?

An EEG is a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp

An EEG electrode sums and amplifies electric potentials occurring in many thousands of brain cells. It records electrical activity in the cortex over time. The EEG provides output in the form of line tracings called brain waves. Brain waves vary in frequency and amplitude

Describe how lesioning and electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) are used to investigate brain function. Describe how Wilder Penfield studied and mapped brain functions.

LESIONING - involves destroying a piece of the brain

ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE BRAIN (ESB) involves sending a weak electric current into the brain structure to stimulate (activate) it.

Penfield was a neurosurgeon and pioneer in neuroscience, his specialties was surgical treatment with epilepsy. During surgery, the patient would remain conscious and alert. Penfield was able to stimulate portions of the brain with a mild electrical prob. Carefully recording and categorizing his patient's responses and making reports of memories, sounds, and so on as a result of the stimulation.

Define transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

a new technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain

CT scan

is a computer-enhanced x-ray of brain structure. Multiple x-rays are shot from many angles, and the computer combines the readings creating a horizontal slice

MRI

uses magnetic field, radio waves and computerized enhancement to map out brain structure. MRIs can be used to produce remarkably high-resolution pictures of brain structure

fMRI

fMRI is a new variation of MRI technology that monitors blood flow and oxygen consumption in the brain to identify areas of high activity

PET

is used to map brain activity rather than brain structure. They provide colour-coded maps that show areas of high activity in the brain over time

Describe the hindbrain and midbrain components and their brain functions.

The HINDBRAIN includes the cerebellum and 2 structures found in the lower part of the brain stem: the medulla and the pons

THE MEDULLA - which attaches to the spinal cord, is in charge of largely unconscious but vital functions such as breathing, circulating blood and maintaining muscle tone

THE PONS -

includes a bridge of fibres that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum. The pons also contains several clusters of cell bodies involves sleep and arousal

THE CEREBELLUM -

is a relatively large and deeply folded structure located adjacent to the back surface of the brainstem. The cerebellum is critical to the coordination of movement and to the sense of equilibrium, or physical balance

THE MIDBRAIN -

is the segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain. The midbrain contains an area that is concerned with integrating sensory processes, such as vision and hearing

What is the forebrain?

The forebrain is the largest and most complex region of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum

What is the thalamus?

The thalamus is a structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex. It is made up of clusters of cell bodies, or somas. Each cluster is concerned with relaying sensory information to a particular part of the cortex

What is the hypothalamus?

Is a structure found near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation of basic biological needs. The hypothalamus lies beneath the thalamus. It is no larger than a kidney bean, the hypothalamus contains various clusters of cells that have many key functions

What is the limbic system?

The limbic system is a loosely connected network of structures located roughly along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas

Describe the cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest and most complex part of the human brain. It includes the brain areas that are responsible for the most complex mental activities, including learning, remembering, thinking, and consciousness itself. The cerebral cortex is the convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum; the cerebrum is divided into two halves called hemispheres, the right and the left hemisphere. The corpus callosum is the structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres

What are the four lobes in the cerebral cortex? Describe them briefly.

OCCIPITAL LOBE

At the back of the head, includes the cortical area where most of the visual signals are sent and visual processing is begun

PARIETAL LOBE

is the forward of the occipital lobe. It includes the area that registers the sense of touch, called the primary somatosensory cortex

TEMPORAL LOBE

lies below that parietal lobe. Near the top of the temporal lobe contains an area devoted to auditory processing, calle the primary auditory cortex

FRONTAL LOBE

is the largest lobe in the human brain. It contains the principal areas that control the movement of muscles, called the primary motor cortex

Explain the allocation of areas in the primary motor cortex to different types of body movements

It does not depend on the part's size but on the diversity and precision of its movements. Thus, more of the cortex is given to parts we have fine control over (fingers, lips, and the tongue)

The frontal lobe to the front of the motor complex, which is called the prefrontal cortex. This area is disproportionately large in humans, and contributes to working memory and some decision making