GEOL 110

Allele

Variant form of a gene that determines specific traits of an organism.

Artificial Selection

Process by which humans selectively breed organisms to enhance desired traits.

Biogeography

Study of the distribution of species and ecosystems across geographic space and time.

Bottlenecks

Sharp reduction in population size due to environmental events or human activities, leading to a loss in genetic diversity.

Chromosomes

Structures composed of DNA and proteins that carry genetic information in the form of genes.

Founder Effect

Type of genetic drift that occurs when a new population is established by a small group, leading to reduced genetic variation.

Gene

Unit of heredity that encodes information about specific traits, passed from parent to offspring.

Genetic Drift

Random change in allele frequencies in a population, usually having significant effect in small populations.

Homologous Structure

Anatomical features that are similar to that of different species due to shared ancestry.

Particulate Inheritance

Concept that traits are inherited as genes rather than blending from both parents.

Mutation

Change in DNA sequence that can introduce a new genetic variation.

Natural Selection

Process by which organisms with advantageous traits survive and reproduce, leading to evolutionary changes.

Theory of Evolution

Scientific explanation stating that species change over time due to natural selection and genetic drift.

Theory of Evolution

Proposes that all life has descended from common ancestors and that species change over time.

Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck

Early evolutionary theorist who suggested that traits acquired during an organism's lifetime could be passed to offspring (later disproved).

Artificial Selection vs. Natural Selection

Artificial Selection - Controlled by humans to breed specific traits. Natural Selection - Environment pressures that influence survival and reproduction.

Darwin's Observation that Led to the Theory of Natural Selection

Variation exists in populations. More offspring are produced than survive. Those with beneficial traits are more likely to reproduce and pass on favorable traits.

Mendel and Genetics

Mendel's experiment with pea plants established the principles of inheritance, showing how traits are passed from parents to offspring through dominant and recessive alleles.

How is Variation Introduced into a Gene Pool?

Mutation, gene flow, sexual reproduction, and genetic recombination.

Evidence for Evolution

Fossil records, comparative anatomy, molecular biology, embryology, and evolutionary changes.

Process of Natural Selection and Genetic Drift

Natural selection favors beneficial traits leading to adaptation. Genetic drift causes random fluctuations in allele frequencies.

Characters

Observable traits or features of an organism used in classification.

Clade

Group of organisms that include common ancestors and all of its descendants.

Cladogram

Diagram that represents evolutionary relationships between organisms based on shared traits.

Phylogeny

Evolutionary history and relationships among species or groups of organisms.

Symplesiomorph

Shared ancestral trait found in multiple taxa, but not unique to a particular clade.

Synapomorph

Shared derived trait that is unique to a specific clade and helps define evolutionary relationships.

Taxonomy

Science of classifying organisms based on the characteristics and evolutionary relationships.

Hierarchy

Organization of biological classification from broad groups (domain) to specific groups (species).

Linnaean Classification and Binomen

System of naming organisms using a two part name (genus and species). Created by Carl Linnaeus.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Linnaean Classification

Advantages - Simplicity and universal usage. Disadvantages - Reliance on physical traits, rather than evolutionary relationships.

Phylogenetic Systematics

Method of classification based on evolutionary history and shared ancestry, rather than just physical similarities.

Cladogram Parts and How to Read Them

Branches, nodes, and clades. Read from root to tip.

How Are a Data Matrix and a Cladogram Related?

Data matrices record character traits for organisms, which are used to deconstruct cladograms.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cladistics

Advantages - Focus on evolutionary relationships. Disadvantages - Include potential subjectivity in trait selection and rely on available data.

Appendicular Skeleton

Part of skeleton that includes limbs and girdles. Help in movement.

Axial Skeleton

Central part of the skeleton. Include skull, vertebral column, and ribcage. Supports and protects vital organs.

Cortical Bone

Dense outer layer of bone that provides strength and support.

Cranial Skeleton

Bones that form the skull. Protect the brain and sensory organs.

Functional Morphology

Study of the relationship between an organism's structure and function.

Muscle Insertion

Point where a muscle attaches to a bone and moves during contraction.

Muscle Origin

Fixed attachment point of a muscle that remains stationary during contraction.

Postcranial Skeleton

All bones in the body excluding skull.

Tissues

Groups of cells that perform specific functions.

Trabecular Bone

Spongy and porous bone found in long bones. Help absorb stress and reduce weight.

4 Types of Tissues

Epithelial (covers surface), connective (supports and connects), muscle (enables movement), and nervous (transmits signals).

Skeletal System

Framework of bones and cartilage that provides structure, protection, and movement.

What are Bones Made of?

Collagen (for flexibility) and minerals (calcium phosphate for strength).

How are Bones Classified by Morphology?

Based on shape. Long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.

5 Functions of Bones

Support, protection, movement, blood cell production, and mineral storage.

How are Muscle Scars used in Paleontology?

Muscle scars on fossilized bones help infer muscle size, function, and movement capabilities of extinct organisms.

Anatomical Terms used to Describe Skeletal Positions

Anterior (front), posterior (back), dorsal (top), ventral (bottom), proximal (closer to body), and distal (further from body).

Major Bones on Dinosaur Skeleton

Skull, vertebrae, ribs, pelvis, scapula, humerus, femur, tibia, fibula, and phalanges.