psychology of human development final review

life span development

systematic changes and continuities in the individual that occur between conception and death

age range of lifespan development

between conception and death

nature vs nurture

is development primarily the product of genes, biology and maturation or experience, learning and social influences

cross-sectional design

data is collected at one point in time from individuals of different ages

−Researchers learn nothing about how people change with age.

−Age effects and cohort effects are confounded. (60 year olds are slow with phones, but is it because they didn't have them or age?)

−Quicker and easier than longitudinal studies

−(getting data from 10, 20, 30, 40 year olds at the same point in time)

−Doesn't explain if it's an age change or cohort

longitudinal design

a cohort of individuals is assessed repeatedly over time

−Provides information about age changes rather than age differences−Can indicate whether the characteristics and behaviors measured remain consistent over time- Reach out to the 10 year olds at 20, etc

genotype

actual genetic material

phenotype

outward expression of the genotype

concordance rate

the % of cases where both in a pair has the attribute

germinal period

conception to 2 weeks- zygote

−By 1 week differentiation has occurred (stem cell research covers what happens on cells that haven't differentiated)

Blastocyst and trophoblasts

embryonic period

implantation to 8 weeks- period where organs and systems/tissues are forming

fetal period

8 weeks to birth- fetus

teratogen

any disease, drug or other environmental agent that can harm a developing fetus

when are teratogens most severe during prenatal development?

embryonic period

parts of a neuron

dendrite, cell body, nucleus, axon hillock, myelin sheath, axon, terminals, muscle fiber

dendrite

receives information

axon

electrochemical signals flow down

terminals

release neurotransmitters-send signals onto next neurons

myelin sheaths

insulates and protects nerve cells and speeds up signal transmission

neural plasticity

"blooming and pruning"

the developing brain- adolescence

Limbic system developing prior to maturation of the prefrontal cortex

sensation

when outside environmental information(rays of light, sound waves) enters our sense organs and moves through the sensory pathways

perception

the interpretation of what has been sensed

visual cliff

most infants of crawling age clearly perceive depth and are afraid of drop-offs

gross motor skills

involve large muscles and whole-body or limb movement (kicking or running)

fine motor skills

involve precise movements of the hands and fingers or feet and toes (writing letter or tying shoes)

Assimilation(Piaget's theory)

Integrating new information into existing cognitive frameworks (schemas).

Accommodation(Piaget's theory)

Process of modifying existing schemes to better fit new experiences

Piaget's 4 major stages of development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

sensorimotor stage- birth to 2 years

infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions

object permanence(sensorimotor)

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.

- important accomplishment made during the first year

A not B error(sensorimotor)

occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting a familiar hiding place (A) rather than a new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 of the sensorimotor stage.

preoperational stage- 2 to 7 years

child begins to represent the world with words and images

egocentrism(preoperational)

inability to distinguish between one's own perspective and someone else's perspective.

ex. three mountain task

ex. If you're on a video call with a young child and they're watching Dora the Explorer on their TV, they might say: Look, Dora is climbing the mountain, but they don't turn the camera to the TV. They assume you can see exactly what they see even though you're not in the room

concrete operational stages- 7 to 11 years

the child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets

conservation(concrete operational)

The idea that certain properties of an object or substance do not change when its appearance is altered in some superficial way

-ex. 2 identical glasses are filled with equal amounts of water, the child agrees that both glasses have the same amount of water, water from one glass is poured into a taller thinner glass

- children in the concrete operational stage will say they still have the same even though they look different; children in the preoperational stage will say the taller glass has more

formal operational stage- 11 to adulthood

the adolescent reasons in more abstract idealistic and logical wats

hypothetical-deductive reasoning(formal operational)

develop hypotheses, or best guesses, and systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem

Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky)

Range of tasks a child can perform with guidance but not alone.

Scaffolding (Vygotsky)

the more-skilled person gives structured help to a less-skilled learner

explicit(declarative) memory

Conscious recall (e.g., facts, events).Includes episodic, and semantic memories

implicit(nondeclarative) memory

Unconscious skills (e.g., riding a bike).Skills, priming, classical conditionings/habituation

classical conditioning (Pavlov)

learning through association( Pavlov's dog)

operant conditioning (B.F Skinner)

Learning through reinforcement and punishment

Both positive and negative consequences and rewards.

observational learning/ social learning theory (Bandura)

Learning by observing the behavior of other people (called models)

Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon

Temporary inability to recall a word in older adults (seems familiar but can't put a word to it).

mental age(MA)

individual's level of mental development relative to others

-the level of intellectual functioning or cognitive ability that corresponds to the average ability of a person at a certain chronological age.

ex. If an 8-year-old child performs on an intelligence test at the level typical of a 10-year-old, their mental age would be 10.

chronological age(CA)

the actual age of a person

emotional intelligence

focuses on interpersonal, intrapersonal and practical aspects of successful functioning

language acquisition device( Noam Chomsky)

children are born with the ability that enables detection of certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax and semantics

telegraphic speech

the use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs and other connectives

"Mommy give Tommy ice cream"

child-directed speech

language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, with simple words and sentences- predicts greater word prediction at 2 years

the rogue test

revealed at what point infants are able to self-recognize through placing a mark on their forehead and seeing if they point to it or recognize that they are the person in the mirror

- around 18 months

temperament

early, genetically based but environmentally influenced tendencies to respond in predictable ways to events that serve as the building blocks of later personality

easy child

positive mood, establishes regular routine, adapts easily (40%)

difficult child

reacts negatively, cries frequently, irregular routines, slow to accept change(10%)

slow-to-warm-up child

low activity level, somewhat negative, low mood intensity(15%)

Marcia's 4 statuses of identity

identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, identity moratorium, identity achievement

marcia's crisis

individual explores alternatives (something isn't working and change is needed)

marcia's commitment

personal investment

identity diffusion

no crisis or commitments

identity foreclosure

commitment but no crisis

ex. when asked what they wanted to be when they got older, they said "Doctor", but hadn't explored any other options

identity moratorium

in the midst of a crisis, but commitments are absent or vaguely defined

ex. takes hard classes in medical school and becomes unsure if they want to be a doctor

identity achievement

undergone a crisis and made a commitment

ex. they decided to become a nurse

gender stereotypes

general impressions & beliefs about girls/women and boys/men

− Boys' gender stereotypes are more rigid than girls'.

− Assigned traits are different & unequal in terms of social status & power

− Male/Masculine traits are instrumental or agentic—being independent, aggressive, power oriented

− Female/Feminine traits are expressive or communal—being warm and sensitive

− Masculinity may be the new norm

gender roles

patterns of behavior that females and males "should" adopt in a particular society

female sex differences

more body fat, longer life expectancy, 10% smaller brain, better memory, better overall grades, relational aggression, expression emotions, more caring and empathetic, "people-oriented", prone to internalizing

male sex differences

10% taller, higher levels of stress, larger part of hypothalamus for sexual behavior, greater visuo-spatial skills, greater computer use, more physically and verbally aggressive, more physically active, express and experience more anger, "thing oriented", prone to externalizing

gender intensification hypothesis

process where gender differences may be magnifies by:

-hormonal changes of puberty

-increased pressure to conform to gender roles

boy gender stereotypes

are more rigid than girls

Piaget and Kohlberg agree that

peers relations are critical for moral development

Kohlberg Stages of moral development

Heinz Dilemma

Preconventional (up to 9 years)

Conventional (early adolescence)

Post-conventional (early adulthood)

Heinz Dilemma

(Kohlberg)

preconventional- up to 9 years old

good and bad interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments

ex. Heinz was wrong because he could go to jail

conventional- early adolescence

certain standards are set by others

ex. Heinz was wrong because its against the rules/social norms

postconventional- early adulthood

alternative moral course, explore options, personal moral code

ex. Heinz was right to steal because he was doing it for his wife

emotion regulation

consists of effectively managing arousal to adapt to circumstances and to reach a goal

Arousal involves the state of alertness or activation

Harlow's classic rhesus studies on attachment

CONTACT COMFORT IS A CRUCIAL ELEMENT IN DEVELOPING ATTACHMENT

Comfort and sense of security when in physical contact with mothers/others (lack of contact comfort can lead to baby being uncomfortable with/refusing bottle from mother)

Ex: Monkey Studies (monkey attached to cloth mother not feeding, because it was soft)

Mary Ainsworth Strange Situation

Observational measure of infant attachment to caregiver through a series of intros, separations, and reunions with caregiver and adult stranger

• Secure Attatchment, Insecure avoidant, insecure resistant, insecure disorganized

securely attached

caregiver as a secure base from which to explore; parenting sensitive and responsive

ex. When mom leaves the room the get upset (separation protest) When mom comes back in they are easily soothed

insecure avoidant

show insecurity by avoiding the caregiver. When mom is first there, the kid acts as if mom isn't there

When parent leaves, infant doesn't cry (or show overt stress)When parent returns, they still don't care

Typically males

insecure resistant

cling to caregiver then resist the closeness

Parenting - non-responsive, unavailable, rejecting Very clingy to mom when first arrives When parent leaves, infant cries

When parent returns infant at first returns to parent for comfort, but the hits or gets upset/punishes parent for leaving them

Typically resistant

insecure disorganized

disorganized and disoriented, perhaps fearful

Parenting - neglect and/or abuse

Go for comfort when they return then freeze out of fear

socio-emotional selectivity theory

older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being

-Perception that one has little time left to live

-Prompts more emphasis on the goal of fulfilling current emotional needs

Hanging out with people who make them happy/bring benefits

coparenting

way in which 2 parents coordinate their parenting and function well

- can ivolve how they coordinate different parenting styles into one, how they view punishments, rewards, freedoms

authoritative parenting

reasonable demands, consistently enforced, with sensitivity to and acceptance of the child

Ex. "You know the rules. No video games before homework is finished. If you finish your homework now, you can get back to your Fortnite match. If you need some help with your homework, I'm happy to help"

authoritarian parenting

many rules and demands, few explanations and little sensitivity to the child's needs and perspectives

ex. "stop being so lazy and do your homework now! we are not going to discuss this! and if I catch you on your switch before its done, you'll lose it for a month"

permissive parenting

few rules and demands, children are allowed much freedom by indulgent parents

ex. "you don't feel like doing homework right now? that's alright. maybe work on it layer, okay?

neglectful/uninvolved parenting

few rules and demands, parents are uninvolved and insensitive to their children's needs

ex. doesn't care if their kid plays video games or does homework. If the child is having a hard time in schools, the parents don’t bat an eye.

what makes development abnormal

statistical deviance, maladaptiveness, personal distress

statistical deviance

is it statistically rare? or is it more common?

maladaptiveness

does it interfere with and affect daily activities? relationships? school/work?

personal distress

is it personally upsetting?

diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders(DSM)

Spells out defining features and symptoms for numerous psychological disorders−

Most psychological disorders have many variations and many contributors

− Most require a number of symptoms for a minimum duration

▪ "Must include 5 of the following types of symptoms, including one of the first two, persistently during a 2-week period:"

externalizing problems

Symptoms of multiple disorders

Lack self-control

− Act out in ways that disturb

other people!!***

− Violate social expectations

− Aggressive

− Disobedient

− Difficult to control

− Disruptive

maladaptive coping mechanisms that can occur when things get difficult (temper tantrum when no longer appropriate like at 7 years old)

internalizing problems

Negative emotions are internalized, or bottled up, rather than externalized, or expressed

− Anxiety disorders

− Phobias

− Severe shyness and withdrawal

− Depression

Alzheimer disease

progressive, irreversible brain disorder beta-amyloid plaque, and neurofibrillary tangles(tau)

characteristics of Alzheimer

beta-amyloid plaque, and neurofibrillary tangles(tau)

advance directives

states preferences such as whether life-sustaining procedures may be used to prolong life

euthanasia

the act of painlessly ending the lives of individuals who are suffering from an incurable disease or severe disability

passive euthanasia

person is allowed to die by withholding treatments such as withdrawing a life sustaining device