Global Midterm Review

These flashcards cover key concepts such as the Columbian Exchange, the Encomienda system, and significant revolutions in history, among others.

Columbian Exchange

A widespread network of trade between the Americas, Europe, and Africa which involved the transfer of crops, animals, people, technology, and diseases between the three continents.

When did the Columbian Exchange occur?

It began in 1492 after Christopher Columbus’s discovery of the Americas.

What were the effects of the Columbian Exchange on the Americas?

• It brought devasting diseases such as influenza, smallpox, and measles to the Native American population.

• They were not immune to these diseases from never being exposed to them.

• Due to this, much of the Native American population decreased (demographic collapse)

What were the effects of the Columbian Exchange on Europe?

Trade of crops such as potatoes to and corn to Europe led to the a rise in their population.

What were the effects of the Columbian Exchange on Africa?

• Similarly, crops to Africa brought an increase in their population

• Received resources from Europe

• Trade of African slaves increased which replaced indigenous labour in the Americas

• Led to the development of the Transatlantic Slave Trade (altering African societies)

Encomienda System

A labor system where Spanish settlers demanded labor from Native people in exchange for protection and conversion to Christianity.

When was the encomienda system implemented?

In the 16th century to the 18 century

How did the encomienda system shape Spanish colonial society?

Established a social order within Spanish society structured around the Spanish class, gender and racially mixed people.

Spanish men in the social Hierarchy

Male Spanish settlers were at the top as they saw themselves as politically and economically dominant over everyone else.

Creoles in Spanish Society

• Those who were born in the Americas from Spaniards

• Did not receive the same superiority as the Spanish male settlers

Women in Spanish society

• Regarded as “bearers of civilization” as they produced children

• Contributed to the rise of Mestizos

Mestizos in Spanish society

• The mixed race population

• Significantly looked down upon by the Spanish

• Were not seen as equal

Native Americans in Spanish society

• At the bottom of the social hierarchy

• Referred to as “Indians”

• Subject to abuse, excessive labour, population decrease, converted religion (to Christianity), and were taught Spanish

• Led to the dismantling of Native American society

Triangle Trade

A trade system that operated within the Atlantic Ocean between Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

When did the Triangle Trade system operate from?

From the 16th to the 19th century

Trading Details

• European manufactured goods were transported to Africa

• Enslaved Africans were forcibly shipped across the Atlantic to the Americas

• Raw materials such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton produced by the slave labour in the Americas were exported to Europe

What was the primary driver of the Triangle trade?

The demand for sugar plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean (very high demand)

How did the demand for sugar plantations affect Africa?

• 15 million to 20 million Africans were forcibly sent to the Americas, Europe, Asia and the Middle East against their will

• Forced labour of millions of Africans did not enrich Africa - it divided them and destabilized their societies

How did the demand for sugar plantations affect the Americas?

The demand for sugar created brutal slavers systems with the slaves sent from Africa in order to cultivate sugar

How did the demand for sugar plantations affect Europe?

The cultivation of sugar generated immense wealth and profit for Europe and boosted their economy

Counter-Reformation

The Catholic resurgence in response to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at correcting abuses within the Church and persuade Protestants to return to Catholicism instead of furthering the spread of Protestantism

Protestant Reformation

A religious, political, and cultural upheaval that challenged the authority of the Roman Catholic Church during the 16th century

The Council of Trent

• Counter Reformation began with this

• An assembly that met between 1545-1563 to address matters of doctrine and reform

• Aimed to clarify differences between Catholics and Protestants

How did it respond to the Protestant challenge in Europe?

The counter-reformation responded to the Protestant challenge in Europe by establishing reforms and clarifying catholic doctrines

Establishing new religious orders

• Society of Jesus also know as the Jesuits

• Founded by Ignatius Loyola

• Played a crucial role in the education of theology and philosophy and missionary work worldwide to combat Protestant theology

Establishment of Inquisition

the judicial procedure established by the Church to find and accuse Heretics

Heretics

Those who did not follow the church or questioned it

Was there religious freedom during the Counter Reformation

Due to the establishment of inquisition, there was little to no religious freedom during this time

Haitian Revolution

A successful slave revolt in the French colony Saint Domingue from 1791 to 1804, leading to Haiti's independence and the first black republic.

Causes of the Haitian Revolution

• Brutal slavery conditions

• Influence of Enlightenment ideas

• Political instability within France’s own revolution

Saint Domingue

• most profitable and richest country due to sugar plantations

• Massive and brutal slavery labour within the colony

Enlightenment influence Haitian Revolution

Enlightenment ideas such as equality, liberty, and fraternity inspired the enslaved people of Haiti to demand their rights

Why was the Haitian Revolution significant for the history of slavery and the independence movement?

• it was the only successful slave revolt in history once Haiti declared independence in 1804

• Directly challenged the institution of slavery on a global impact and inspired future movements of human rights and freedom in the Caribbean, Central and South America

French Revolution

A period from 1789 to 1799 that transformed French society, abolishing absolute monarchy and establishing the principle of equality before the law.

Enlightenment influence in the French Revolution

• Ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity inspired the French people to revolt

• Transforming France from an absolute monarch to a republic through radical and violent political actions

What were the major outcomes for French society and politics from the French Revolution?

• Involved getting rid of absolute monarchs who believed it was their god given right to rule a nation however they pleased

• Citizens were now seen as equal before the law

Outcomes for women in society during the French Revolution

• Actively participated in the revolution but did not receive the same equalities as men

• Made serious political demands, signed petitions, detailing their complaints

• Brought light to women in society who were also deserving of liberty and equality

• Not granted at the time but later inspired feminist movements on women’s rights and equality to vote and actively participate in society

Copernicus

A Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric model of the universe, placing the sun at the center rather than the Earth.

When did Copernicus develop the heliocentric model?

During the 16th century

What did Copernicus’s work do?

It marked a significant point in history during the Scientific Revolution (occurred mid 16th - 18th century)

How did Copernicus’s ideas challenge traditions understandings of the universe?

• Challenged the old religious belief that European scholars accepted that the earth was the center of the universe

• The influence of religious thought decreased in European society

• Many began to believe that while God created the universe, science defined it and that is how humans can come to understand the universe

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement from the 1600s to 1700s promoting reason, skepticism of authority, and advocating for liberty and separation of church and state.

How did the Enlightenment influence political thought in Europe?

It led to the rise of democratic ideals, and concepts of natural rights

John Locke - Enlightenment Thinker

• stated the concept of natural rights

• Proposed government by consent

How did the Enlightenment influence social thought in Europe?

• These breakthroughs shifted European attitudes and impacted society

• Boosted European self-confidence as it was seen as the highest level of human thinking at the time

• Showed much progress for the time period

Witch Hunts

Persecutions of individuals accused of witchcraft in early modern Europe, revealing societal fears and biases, particularly against women.

When did witch hunts occur?

Occurred in the late 15th century

How did religious tensions fuel witch hunts?

Witch hunt intensity peaked in Rhineland where tensions of Protestants and Catholics were high

Who was the main target of witch hunt persecutions?

• Around 110,000 were tried and 60,000 were executed

• 95% of these were women

What do witch hunts reveal about society at the time in Europe?

• revealed much about how women were viewed at the time

• Women who were tried were poor, widows, unmarried or left without the support of a man in their lives

• They were held responsible for crop failures, inability to conceive children, and unexpected deaths

• It shows that society driven by fear often blames marginalized groups and those who did not meet societal standards

• Did this in order to find someone to blame for something they could not control

Scientific Revolution

A period from the mid 16th century to the late 18th century that challenged already existing religious explanations of the universe and established modern scientific approaches.

Key Figures of the Scientific Revolution

• Galileo: discovery of telescope observations

• Issac Newton: discovery of the law of gravity

How did the Scientific Revolution change approaches to knowledge in Europe?

• It changed the attitudes and the way people thought of how things came to be

• Added more new efficient ways of making knowledge with the development of academics and universities

• Rise of critical thinking, skepticism and doubt

• Questioned and tested wisdom, using experimentation and observation to gain knowledge

• Shaped modern academic and scientific institutions we use today