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All green algae and land plants shared a common ancestor? T or F
True
Not all photoautotrophs are plants? T or F
True. ( excludes red and brown algae)
3 mains issues plants had to overcome on land:
-water loss
-protection from the sun
-ability to effectively disseminate gametes
During colonization of the land there were…
no soil on the land (488 MYA)
No insects or land animals
Fungi present, along with bacteria
Fungi helped to make nutrients and water available for plants
Brytophytes
Mosses
Limited in size due to lack of vasculature
Lack tracheids, but have other conducting cells
Vascular tissue in Tracheophytes
Xylem and phloem
Xylem
Conducts water and minerals from roots
Phloem
Transports sugars from leaves
What features do plants have to protect themselves from desiccation and harmful effects of the sun?
waxy cuticle and stoma
Shift to dominant diploid generation
Haplodiplontic life cycle
multicellular haploid and diploid life stages; alternation of generations
All land plants are haplodiplontic
Haplodiplontic life cycle includes:
A multicellular haploid stage where gametophyte is formed, within gametangia gametes are produced by mitosis, gametes from other plants fuse to form a zygote, the zygote is the first cell of the sporophyte generation. Multicellular diploid stage then produces a sporophyte, within the sporangia diploid mother cells undergo meiosis, to then produce 4 haploid spores by meiosis.
Female gametangia
Archegonia
Male gametangia
Antheridia
Vascular tissue in Tracheophytes and their function.
Xylem and phloem; enhance height and hormones throughout the plant.
Roots
Provide transport and support
Leaves
Increased surface area for photosynthesis
Seed plants
maintain dormancy under poor conditions
Protect the young plant
Provide food for the embryo
Facilitate dispersal of the embryo
Conifers
Pines; leaves have thick cuticle and recessed stomata to retard water loss, canals with resin deter insects and fungi.
Angiosperm features that aided abundance
flower production
Insect pollination
Broad leaves with thick veins
Root system (vascular plants)
anchors the plant
Absorbs water and ions from the soil
Shoot system (vascular plants)
supporting stems
Photosynthetic leaves
Productive flowers
Consists of internode, node, leaf, axillary bud
Meristems locations
Tips of the stems and roots
Plant meristems
Produce hormones that repress the development of lateral bud, if meristem removed plant can not grow from that tip.
Lateral meristems
produce an increase in shoot and root diameter
Found in plants that exhibit secondary growth
Three main types of plant tissue and their functions.
dermal: external surface; serve as protective function.
Ground: participates in photosynthesis, storage function, structural support.
Vascular: conducts water and nutrients
Dermal tissue specifics
forms epidermis
One cell layer thick
Protective covering of the plant
Covered in fatty cutin layer
Contains special cells, including guard cells, trichomes, and root hairs
Guard cells
Open and close stomata.
Trichomes (dermal tissue)
Hair-like outgrowths; keep leaf surfaces cool and reduce evaporation by covering stomatal opening.
Root hairs (dermal tissue)
greatly increase the roots surface area and efficiency of absorption.
3 ground tissue cell type and their function:
parenchyma: storage, photosynthesis, secretion.
Collenchyma: support and protection
Sclerenchyma: support and protection
Xylem (vascular tissue)
Conducts water and mineral, supports plant body
Phloem ( vascular tissue)
Conducts carbohydrates , transports hormones, amino acids, and other substances needed for growth.
2 types of water conducting cells ( xylem)
Vessels: cells are joined butt-ended; water passes through cell to cell through perforated plates.
tracheids: cells are joined at an angle; water passes through from cell to cell through pits.
4 regions of root structure:
root cap
Zone of cell division
Zone of elongation
Zone of maturation
Monocot stems vascular tissue
Bundles scattered through ground tissue systems.
Eudicot stems vascular tissue
Arranged in a ring with internal ground tissue and external ground tissue.
2 different morphological groups ( leaves)
Microphyll: leaf with one vein
Megaphyll: leaf with many veins
Transport mechanism in plants
Water and minerals enter the roots, move to the xylem and innermost vascular tissue, water rises through xylem, most of the water exits through the stomata in leaves.
osmotic concentration
When two solutions have a different concentration
Hypertonic
Higher solute concentration
Hypotonic
Lower solute concentration
Isotonic
Two solutions have the same concentration
Turgid
High concentration of water within cells due to osmosis
Plasmolysis
Cell shrinks due to water leaving the cell.
Increase in solute concentration causes a…
Decrease in water potential
Increase in turgor pressure causes a…
Increase in water potential.
Most water absorbed by plants enter through the…
Roots and root hairs
Three transport routes through cells:
apoplast route:movement through cell walls and the space between cells; avoids membrane transport
Symplast route: cytoplasm continuum between cells connected by plasmodesmata
Transmembrane route: membrane transport between cells and across the membranes of vacuole within cells; permits the greatest control
Guttation
The loss of water from leaves when root pressure is high.
Root pressure
Caused by the accumulation of ions in the roots at times when transpiration from leaves is low or absent
- At night
Causes water to move into plant and up the xylem despite the absence of transpiration.
Abundant in xylem
Phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen and sometimes iron.
Mineral that can not be transported elsewhere once deposited in a particular plant part:
Calcium
Rate of transpiration
Over 90% of water taken by the plants roots is lost to the atmosphere
Photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide supply from the atmosphere
Closing the stomata can control water loss on a short term basis
Stomata must open to allow carbon dioxide entry
Stomatal opening and closing
Closed when carbon dioxide concentrations are high
Open when blue wavelengths of light promote uptake of potassium by the guard cells
Closed when temperature exceeds 34 degrees and water relations are unfavourable
CAM plants conserve water in dry environments by opening the stomata and taking in carbon dioxide at night.
Plant adaptions to drought
Dormancy
Loss of leaves
Covering leaves with cuticle and wooly trichomes
Reducing the number of stomata
Having stomata in pits on the leaf surface
Halophytes
Halophytes are plants that can tolerate soils with high salt concentrations.
Soil
Highly weathered out layer of the earths crust
The earths crust includes about 92 naturally occurring elements
Full of microorganisms
Topsoil
Mixture of mineral particles of varying sizes, living organisms, and humus.
If topsoil is lost, soils water holding capacity and nutrient content is adversely affected.
Measures to prevent erosion include:
Intercropping
Conservation tillage
No-till
Plant nutrients
Photosynthesis; CO2 into sugar
Also need:
Macronutrients (9)
Micronutrients (7)
Hydroponics
soil provides nutrients and support but these functions can be replaced in hydroponic systems to maximize growth
Allows plants to be grown all year around
Mycorrhizae
Symbiotic associations with mycorrhizal fungi are found in about 90% of vascular plants
- Expand surface area available for nutrient uptake
Enhances phosphate transfer to the plant
Carnivorous plants
Often grow in acidic soils that lack nitrogen
Trap and digest small animals, primarily insects, to obtain adequate nitrogen supplies
Having modified leaves adapted for luring and trapping prey
Prey is digested with enzymes secreted from specialized glands
Photorespiration
If CO2 levels are low then O2 may bind to rubisco
This causes photorespiration
Which results in neither nutrients or energy storage
Plants must keep O2 away from rubisco
C3 Photosynthesis
Occurs in mesophyll cells
In C3 plants, as CO2 increases, the Calvin cycle becomes more efficient
But the C3 plants have less nitrogen and minerals per unit mass
Which results in lower nutritional value for herbivores
Meaning more plant must be eaten
C4 Photosynthesis
This photosynthesis uses an extra pathway to shuttle carbon deep within the leaf
This reduces photorespiration
Increasing CO2 levels
Less nitrogen and other macronutrients found in leaves, so herbivores must eat more to meet requirements.
Phytoremediation
Use of plants to break down pollutants.
Phytodegradation
contaminant is taken up from soil and broken down.
Phytovolatilization
contaminant is taken up from soil and released through the stomata.
Phytoaccumulation
contaminant is taken up from soil and concentrated in shoots
Dermal tissue system ( plant defence)
First line of defence
Epidermal cells throughout the plant secrete wax to protect plant surfaces from water loss and attack
Above ground parts also covered with cutin.
Damage to the dermal surface can…
Create an entry site for pathogens. Parasitic nematodes use their sharp mouth parts to get through the plant cell walls, some form tumors.
Fungal invasion and phases:
Fungi seek out weak spot in the dermal system or stomata to enter the plant.
Phases include:
windblown spore lands on leaves
Spore then germinates and forms adhesion pad
Hyphae grow through cell wall and press against cell membrane
Hyphae differentiate into haustoria
Chemical defences
Many plants employ toxins to kill herbivores or deter their grazing behaviour.
Secondary metabolites
Metabolic pathways needed to sustain life are modified to produce chemicals that adversely affect herbivores.
Such as:
alkaloids
Tannins
Plant oils
Allelopathic plants
Plants that secret chemicals to block seed germination or inhibit growth of nearby plants; minimizes competition for resources.
Very little vegetation grows under black walnut trees due to allelopathy.
Ricin
Poison, produced by the castor bean plant, very deadly, protects plants from aphids.
Photomorphogenesis
Non-directional, light triggered development.
Phototropism
Directional growth response to light.
Phytochrome
Pigment containing protein, that has two interconvertible forms: Pr and Pfr
Involved in many signalling pathways that lead to gene expression.
Blue light receptors
Blue light receptor phototropin 1.
Blue light stimulates PHOT1 To autophosphorylate
Regulates the flux of auxin in shoots
Gravitropism
Plants response to the gravitational field of the earth.
Shoot exhibits negative gravitropism
Roots have a positive gravitropic response
4 general steps lead to gravitropic response:
1. Gravity is perceived by the cell; falling amyloplasts
2. A mechanical signal is transduced into a physiological signal; amyloplasts touch ER membranes
3. Physiological signal is transduced inside the cell and to other cells
Differential cell elongation occurs in the “up” and “down” sides of root and shoot
Amyloplasts
Starch storing organelles
Modified chloroplasts, have no chlorophyll
Roots response to gravity
In roots, the cap is the site of gravity perception
Signalling triggers differential cell elongation and division in the elongation zone
What is auxin?
A plant hormone that promotes cell growth.
Indoleacetic acid
4 genetically regulated pathways to flowering have been identified:
1. The light dependent pathway
2. The temperature dependent pathway
3. The gibberellin dependent pathway
4. The autonomous pathway
Plants rely primarily on one pathway, but all four pathways can present.
Light dependent pathway is also known as…
The photoperiodic pathway.
Long day plants…
Flower when daylight becomes longer than critical
Short day plants
Flower when daylight becomes shorter than critical length.
Day neutral plants
Flower when mature regardless of day length.
CONSTANS (CO)
Turns on genes that are needed for flowering.
Leads to expression of LFY
Phytochrome regulates the transcription of CO
Produced day and night
Levels are maintained by circadian clock
Vernalization (temperature dependant pathway)
Plants that require a period of chilling before flowering.
Gibberellin dependent pathway
Plant hormone; decreased levels have shown to delay flowering in some species.
Autonomous pathway
Balance between floral promoting and inhibiting signals, delays flowering .
Flowering pathways
Lead to adult meristem becoming a floral meristem.
The sepals, petals, stamen, and carpel.
The four whirls
Calyx: consists of flattened sepals
Corolla: consists of petals
Androecium: all the stamens; filament and anther
Gynoecium: all the carpels; ovary, style, stigma, ovule.
Germination
Emergence of the radical through the seed coat requires light warmth in time.
Ethology
Study of the natural history of behaviour.
Emphasis on innate behaviour
Instinctive, does not require learning
Preset paths in nervous system
Genetic- fixed action pattern