Unit VIII - Scientific Revolution + Enlightment

Vesalius

Wrote The Structure of the Human Body, disproved Galen's writings about the human body from the Greek era.

Tycho Brahe

A Danish astronomer who made extremely accurate, pre

Richard Simon

A French priest who pioneered biblical criticism by publishing A Critical History of the Old Testament. He thought that it was more important to depend on church tradition rather than literal statements.

Paleography

Deciphering, reading, dating, and authentication of manuscripts. Established by Jean Mabillon in 1618 in his book On Diplomatics.

Gregorian Calendar

Calendar issued by Pope Gregory XIII, adopted by/recognized by all people, used today, helped many different places interact, and trade with each other.

Biblical Criticism

The evaluation and analysis of the Bible to prove its credibility. Applying the methods of textual criticism of secular documents to biblical texts.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Published by John Locke in 1690, he asserted that true knowledge is derived from experience—from perceptions by the sense organs and reflection of the mind on these perceptions.

Tabula Rasa

John Locke held that the mind was a blank tablet and that the social environment shapes what people think or believe.

John Locke

Supported Constitutionalism. He had a positive view of human nature and believed moderate religion was good, and people could be educated/enlightened to a better way of life. Believed in natural rights (life, liberty, and property), especially property. He believed that if a government threatened natural rights, it was ok/supported to rebel against it.

Thomas Hobbes

Supported absolutism, disliked violence and disorder of Civil War, had a negative view towards human nature. Believed people couldn't govern themselves so people should surrender freedom of action to a ruler who needed unrestricted authority to maintain order, no one should question ruler because it would lead to chaos.

Political Theory

A body of work aimed at developing knowledge about politics and political systems.

Hugo Grotius

Wrote The Law of War and Peace (1625), he tried to prove that such a thing as natural law existed, and that states were bound by it, first to propose the concept of a 'United Nations' and believed wars should be outlawed.

Leviathan

Book written by Hobbes, argued that government without a strong leader would be similar to a monster mentioned in the Bible, supported absolutism.

Two Treatises of Government

Book written by Locke, which sided with Parliament and refuted the divine right of kings and absolute autism. Stated details about natural rights that people were entitled to.

Encyclopédie

Written/arranged by Diderot. It was a collection of the Philosophes's writing that carried a lot of scientific, technical, and historical knowledge. It epitomized the skeptical, rational, and scientific thoughts of the era. The writings were most often criticized by the clergy and the nobility, but they were the biggest group of readers.

Physiocrats

'Economists', close to government, argued that agriculture, grain, production, and efficient use of land was the economic foundation for expanding national commerce. Favored strong government to overcome traditional obstacles and establish new industries.

Adam Smith

Wanted to increase national wealth by getting rid of barriers that hindered growth. Argued that empires were unnecessary to have a strong economy. Wanted to limit powers of the government, he was the 'prophet of free trade', wanted countries to use their comparative advantage.

Montesquieu

Aristocrat/Lord in SW France, parlement of Bordeaux, member, anti

Voltaire

Francois Marie Arouet, easiest Philosophe to read, master of irony and ridicule, convey serious matters through humor, lived abroad, supported freedom of thought, admired the English and popularized their ideas, believed in religious toleration, hated RCC and church tradition, very low opinion of human nature, supported enlightened government— more "modern", rational leaders.

Rousseau

Born in Geneva, Swiss Protestant, almost lower class, neglected as a child. No social status, no money, no sense of money, lived through generosity of friends. Very distrustful, criticized role of French women and salons, thought society was artificial and corrupt, attacked reason, liked natural states more than modern states. He placed an importance on feelings, more spiritual than religious. Preferred republic, good society=good people, emphasized General Will: public should surrender in social contract to majority.

Sophie Condorcet

Widow of writer, who died in the Reign of Terror, she reopened her salon and became a writer/translator of Adam Smith. Her salon was a center for a liberal opposition during the years of Napoleon.

The Spirit of the Laws

Work written by Montesquieu that called for a separation of powers and heavily influenced the formation of the American government.

Diderot

He edited the encyclopédie and published many works by the philosophies in it he hoped it would help people think more rationally and critically.

Laissez Faire

Term first used by the Physiocrats, 'let them do as they fit', used to describe a principle of economic activity— they wanted fewer regulations.

Wealth of Nations

Book written by Adam Smith that spread economic thinking, it was the first modern account of free market economies. Translated to every European language, except Portuguese, and stimulated the economy, especially in Great Britain.

Enlightened Despot

Absolute monarch, yet the despot justifies his/her rule based on usefulness to the state, not divine right. They aimed to improve society, rejected traditional and customary law, centralized the administration of government, and acted as the servant of the state.

Taille

One of the most important taxes in France, 'land tax' generally paid only by peasants, Nobles, office holders, church, and bourgeois were exempt.

'Free gift'

Instead of being taxed, the church periodically paid the government, it was pretty large, but still less than what the government could have received through direct taxation.

Maupeou Parlements

Under Louis XV, new parlements in France, the judges had no property rights and became salaried officials appointed by the crown. They were forbidden to reject government edicts or to pass on their own constitutionality— purely judicial.

Turgot

Led the reforming ministry of Louis XVI, suppressed guilds, and privileged municipal monopoly in several trades, more freedom for internal commerce in green. Reviewed taxation system (more taxes) and favored religious toleration.

Corvee

Forced labor that required peasants to work for a month out of the year on roads and other projects, removed by Turgot and instead enacted a money tax.

Leopold

Joseph II's brother, Marie Antoinette's brother— didn't help her, undid Joseph II's reforms to a degree, aristocracy and clergy regained power.

Cameralism

Mercantilist doctrine in central Europe. Similar to physiocrats, but in Germany.

Febronism

German national Catholicism under Maria Theresa and Joseph II that limited papal authority.

The 'Revolutionary' Emperor

Joseph II of Austria, reformed the country drastically and brought new systems and laws into the mix of people. Emphasize unity between all parts of Austria.

Magyars

Hungarians, they became more Germanized due to Joseph II's emphasis on unity and rise of German as an official language which generated linguistic resistance.

Bohemia

Now Czech Republic; its provinces were combined with Austria's, becoming the most industrial advanced part of the HRE.

Legislative Commission

A great consultative assembly created by Catherine II, helped her gain information about conditions in the country, and allowed her to gain a stronghold in Russia due to the loyalty of her deputies.

Peter III

Catherine II's husband, mentally unstable, murdered by a group of Russian army officers (maybe from Catherine?). His passing allowed her to gain access to the throne.

Pugachev Rebellion

Pugachev claimed to be the true Tzar (Peter III) and encouraged peasants to seize their landlord's estates and kill them. The rebellion collapsed and ended up strengthening serfdom.

Cossacks

People of the Russian empire, who lived outside the farming villages often as herders, mercenaries, or outlaws—Russian Cowboys.

Muzhik

Russian peasants.

Catherine's "Greek Projects"

Members of the Orthodox Church, 'Greeks', would replace Muslims as the dominant element throughout the Middle East, making it easier for Catherine to gain control over these areas.

Potemkin Villages

Fake evidence of a nonexistent property.

First Partition of Poland (1772)

Russia's war with OE destabilized situations in Eastern Europe because it threatened the balance of powers; Russia won a lot. Pressure proposes a three

Second Partition of Poland (1793)

Reformers proposed a new constitution in Poland, but people were afraid it would be like the French revolution. Prussia supports it, but Russia doesn't, so Russia sends an army to destroy the constitution. Prussia and Russia annex more parts of Poland to prevent war.

Third Partition of Poland (1795)

Another revolutionary political movement arises to abolish slavery; Russia invades Poland. The country is very small and there is so much conflict in the region; Prussia, Russia, and Austria split up 'leftovers'.

Age of the Atlantic Revolution

Name for the age of revolutions from American Revolution to revolutions of the mid

Age of the Democratic Revolution

Another name for the age of revolutions, called this because certain principles of modern democratic society were affirmed during all these revolutions, which greatly transformed western civilization.

"Patriot King"

George III (German George's Grandson) inherited the throne in 1760; he was British, not German, and wanted to increase the influence of the crown in England.

"King's Friends"

Faction in power from 1770 to 1782, prominently Whigs, created by George III, bought and controlled votes in the House of Commons by granting favors and pensions/making deals in order to work through parliament to increase the influence of the crown.

Dissenters

A large body of dissenters in England, or Protestants, that refused to conform to the Church of England.

John Wilkes

English reformer who published attacks on King George and supported the rights of American colonists. He believes that Parliament members should consider their constituents and their votes. (Liberal, Tories)

Edmund Burke

A conservative who thought the landowning interest should govern the state because they were educated and knew what to do. He was also against methods like selling offices and using bribes to gain political power—got them abolished. (Conservative, Whigs)

Act of Union 1801

Created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, which lasted until 1922. United Catholic and Presbyterian Irish rebellion went against British, who were busy in the French revolution, but they were suppressed and the separate kingdom of Ireland and the Irish Parliament ceased to exist.

Warren Hastings

First British governor general in India, he increased British control over the region, yet did not want an English domination.

India Acts of 1773 and 1784

Passed to regulate British subjects in India, gathered all British establishments under one governor general, created Supreme Court (with British judges), and required the company to submit its correspondence on political matters for review by the ministers of His Majesty's government. Created an Indian office in the British Ministry.

Deductive Method

Stated that a conclusion could be reached using prior known facts, general to specific, created by Descartes.

Inductive Method

A process of making numerous observations until one feels confident in drawing generalizations and predictions from them, created by Bacon.

Skepticism

A constantly doubting frame of mind which held that no certain knowledge is possible for human beings at all.

Empiricism

Asserted that reliable knowledge must be based on observation and experience.

Montaigne

French essayist, whose thought distilled itself into an eternal question: 'what do I know?', with an always implied answer, 'nothing or very little'.

Discourse on Method (1637)

Written by Descartes, he advanced the principle of systematic doubt and began to doubt everything that could be reasonably doubted.

Cartesian Dualism

Philosophy, which held that God had created two kinds of fundamental reality in the universe: thinking substance and extended substance.

William Harvey

Published a book, On the Movement of the Heart and Blood, which set forth the doctrine that blood is continuously circulated through arteries and veins.

Galileo

Italian scientist, who discovered that the moon was not luminous and made of earth

Kepler

He discovered that the orbit of the planets were actually ellipses. He showed that the closer a planet is to the sun, the faster it's orbit, the length of time of a planets orbit is proportional to its distance from the sun. He created laws of planetary motion, connected Tycho and Copernicus's ideas.

Heliocentric Theory

The idea that the Earth and other planets revolve around the sun, developed by Copernicus.

Isaac Newton

He synthesized Galileo and Kepler's work and proved they were two aspects of the same law. He also invented Calc, experimented with circular motion, and measured earth in a new way. He also created the Universal Laws of Gravitation

On the Revolution of Heavenly Orbs (1543)

Written by Copernicus; he held the sun to be the center of the solar system and universe, and argued that the Earth was one of the planets, revolving around it. Published after his death—chicken!

Galileo's laws of moving bodies

He proved that objects of different masses fell at the same rate when air resistance is negligible.

Pierre Bayle

A literary scholar, who realized that many popular beliefs were without scientific foundation. He published many books against supernatural beliefs to inform people about firmly believed ideas being wrong

Edmund Halley

The first man to predict the return of a comet. He identified a comet observed in 1682 as one returning from past sightings and predicted its next sightings. Halley's Comet!

Baruch Spinoza

Developed pantheism, believed that God had no existence apart from the world and that everything itself was an aspect of God. He rejected Cartesian dualism, denied the inspiration of the Bible, no miracles/supernatural things, and thought no governments were just.

Archbishop James Usher

Announced that the world was created in 4004 BCE, he created a heavily disputed chronological system, which some fundamentalist Christians still adhere to.