Sociology beliefs and religion

berger defining religion

acts as a ‘sacred canopy’ giving meaning and prevents anxiety

three types of sociological definitions for religion

substantive, functional, polytheistic

substantive definition of religion

focuses on substance of religious beliefs, belief in a supernatural power or God, exclusive

tylor- ‘belief in spiritual beings’

bruce- ‘beliefs action and institutions which assume existence of supernatural entities and powers of action’

berger- ‘scared canopy’ - supernatural protection

criticisms of substantive definitions

ignored religious practices and non beliefs in god

provides a very broad understanding- western bias

but it widely accepted

functional definitions of religion

focuses on social or psychological functions fro an individual or society, inclusive

benefits society,assumes religion is a product of society, it contributed to society through binding though shared values

could suggest that a football chant is religious

yinger- ‘a system of beliefs and practices by mean of which a group of people snuggle with the ultimate problems of human life’

criticisms of functional definitions

broad and doesn’t involve anti-religious systems that contribute to society

assumes religion is useful and functional

however no bias to western traditions

polythetic definitions of religion

how members of society define religion, cannot produce a universal definiton, it has a deeper meaning

overlapping factors that most religions share: salvation, ethical code, sacred texts, moral community, participation

Southwold- 10 factors: concern with godlike beings, concern with the sacred, salvation, rituals and practices, faith, ethics, supernatural, mythology, sacred texts/ oral tradition, moral community

critcisms of polytheistic definition

not clear how many factors need to be shared

what to include in the list itself

accepted features of religion

1. beliefs

2. theology

3. practices

4. institutions

5. consequences

giddens definition of religion

‘set of symbols involving feelings of reverence and are linked to rituals or ceremonies engaged in by a community of beliefs

postmodernists approaches to religion

• rapidly changing society, manned by class and uncertainty

• meta-narrative are no longer adequate in the interests of the world

• traditional factors have lost significance in understanding a globalised postmodern society (class, gender)

• postmodern society characterised but individualism: choice, diversity and consumer culture

• Global spiritual supermarket

• vacuum of meaning

• disneyification of religion - dilution of religion

postmodernism and science

no longer claim a suernaqty of its scientific methods and claims to enable an understanding of the work and has become discredited (Global warming, antibiotic resistance etc)

scientists selling the interest of the wealth rather than pursuing value free research

therefore lost its authority

postmodernism and lyotard - ideology

religion and science are meta-narratives. religious teachings are no longer accepted as ‘truth’ in modern society due to the growth of scientific facts

marxism- ideology

marx- revolution cannot occur until the working class develop a class consciousness

gramsci- ideological domination prevents class conciseness

abercrombie- a fear of unemployment may prevent rebelling

feminism- ideology

oakley- bowlbys maternal deprivation is an example of science acting as an ideology, justifying gender inequality as children are damaged by working mothers

Karl popper- science as an open belief system

1. hypothesis formation

2. falsification- disapproving hypothesis

3. predictions- deductive

4. theory formation

5. scrutiny

science is open to criticism, scrutiny and testing by others

criticisms- some sociologists see science as any belief system shaped by society

focuses on falsification for social facts

khun- science as a closed belief system

science is based on a single paradigm which is ridiculed if challenged, unless undermined by evidence

herberg- religion as an open belief system

able to adapt to social change

may dilute beliefs to stay relevant - known as internal secularisation

horton- religion as a closed belief system

it contains ‘clauses’ that prevent it from being disproved in the eyes of believers

polanyi and belief systems

beliefs are self-sustained as they have three devices to undermine any contradicting evidence:

1. circularity- explaining religious ideas by using other religious components

2. subsidiary explanations- religious leaders redirect focus when they are being challenged with some sort of explanation that does not contradict the religion

3. denial of legitimacy to rivals- reject rival beliefs to show followers they are the only possible answer

how do science and religion differ

• positivism

• objectivity

• value freedom

• research methodology

• empirical evidence

• scientific method

Comte- science as a belief system- different from other types of belief and relies upon evidence not faith

e.g. evolution

enlightenment and religious thinking

scientific idea create problems for religion

• God cant be proved: relies upon belief rather than evidence

Frazer- believed the growth of scientific explanations of the world would cause religion to disappear

Bruce- scientific method has provided the suggested challenge to religion as a belief system . In modernity religion explanations are replaced by science as many religions are shown to be false

ideology as a belief system

‘set of ideas and value shared by a social group:provide a vision to interpret the world, political/incomplete or false view for reality’

• pluralists ideology; set of views that reflect what no one ideology can

• dominant ideology- justifies social advantages of wealthy power and influential (Marx)

• patriarchal ideology; supports and justifies power of men (Feminists)

• political ideology- analysis and interpretation of how society should work

• scientism: science and methods can provide the knowledge to understand the world

religion as a conservative force: functionalism

value consensus- social solidarity

religions as meeting the functional prerequisites of society (basic needs). maintaining cultural traditions and basic needs of social life

bruce- cultural defence, defends community identity

suffering as Gods will or a challenge of faith, propel are less likely to challenge their circumstances

acts as a defence of traditional values and forms of behaviour → creates a collective consciousness; attitudes, sacred symbols,

conservtaive definition

aims to maintain (seeks to restore) traditional beliefs and customs and the status quo

durkheim religion as a conservative force

Gods were used as an expression of this influence over the individual. God is recognition that society is more important than the individual

totems- sacred as its symbolically representative of the group itself, worshipping their society, social glue

religion is important as it provides a set of beliefs and practices to invite people

civil religion will eventually take over: non religious rituals perform a similar function to religion: football, royalist.

Malinowski (functionalism) religion

reinforces social norms and values→ social solidarity

answers to the ‘unanswerable’, gives security in the face of uncertainty'

e.g. death- comfort and explanation, church attendances soars when at war

parsons (functionalism) religion

provide the core values of society to regulate peoples behaviour and restrict deviance and social change. moral belief→ socialisation

allowing people to make sense of vents which threaten social stability

‘mechanism of judgement’- emotional adjustment at times of crisis

criticisms of functionalist definitions of religion

causing social change

secularisation: less than ½ believe in god

religion can have a negative effect- oppression

multi-faith and multi cultural society

religion can tear communities apart (NI, Islamic fundamentalism)

assumption that worship is a collective act: can be expressed individually

conservative Marxism as a religious force

‘sign of the oppressed creature the sentiment of a heartless world.. the soul of soulless condition. it is the opium of the people’

• conservative force

• not beneficial to society

• ideological apparatus

ruling class legitimises their power

divine right of kings; justified power of kings as its gods will

Marxism: religions acting as an opium of the people

eases pain and oppression:

eventual escape: life after death, gods will, reward of afterlife, wont change their circumstances, test of faith

hope of supernatural intervention to some problems

justification and explanation of inequality: Indian caste system

marxist view haley

• Methodist religion played a key role in preventing a WC revolution in 29th century. most European countries during that time dealt with social change but not Britain. WC dissatisfaction was expressed by changing the church of England for Methodists

• distracted from class grievances and encouraged to see enlightenment in spirituality

• therefore inhibiting social chance

evidence supporting Marxist view of religion

leach- critical of C of E as it recruits from upper class- 80% of bishops privately educated, maintain unequal power

hook- Vatican’s stance on contraception causing problems in less developed countries

criticisms of Marxists role of religion

• fails to consider secularisation: less than 10% of people attend church

• failed to explain the existence of religion where it doesn’t appear to contribute to the oppression of a particular class

• some religions have brought about radical movements: MLK

• Neo Marxists have failed to recognise religions way in opposing the ruling class: churches as safe houses

interactionist and feminists religion as a conservative forces (Berger)

• provides a universal meaning: set of belief and values to make sense of the world

• gives individuals a sense of meaning in a chaotic world

• provides a theodicy: sense of seemingly inexplicable things

• ‘sacred canopy’

• interpretative: religion contributes to the maintenance of social stability in a conservative force

religion as a compensator interactionist

stark and barbridge: meets the needs of individuals when their sense of social order is disrupted

if individuals act a certain way the will be rewarded: life after death, future rewards,

it will therefore never dissapear as its crucial to teh stability of social life and is a conservtaive force

feminist view of religion

religious institutions are patriarchal and serve the interests of that

reflect patriarchal ideology, which in turn legitimises and reproduces male dominance

this is achieved by:

• subordinate roles of women in scriptures

• marginalisation of women

• patriarchal doctrines with traditional gender roles

• religious laws and customs

religion as a force for social change: Weber and Neo Marxists

1. providing a moral foundation for religion: scriptures, social justice movements, liberation theology

2. organising and mobilising force: financial resources and communication channels, sustaining social movements, communal unity, leadership development

3. inspiring alternative social models: challenging prevailing norms, leads to wider social shifts, international communities, paganism, gender equality.

4. shaping cultural and economic values : Weber thesis on capitalism ‘the protestant ethic’ hard work, self discipline, ascetism,

5. force for change and for conservation: complex role, can act as a conservative force, resisting change, conflict and tension,

examples of social change

Civil Rights Movement, feminist movements (suffragettes gaining the vote), LGBT+ rights (same-sex marriage), and shifts to rise of recycling or attitudes towards smoking

MLK "revolution of values"

Weber and theodicies

• Theodicy attempts to construct and deal with how belief systems work.This will outline the theological reasons for the existence of God and evil within society.

• All of these theodicies have social consequences; Weber identified one particular theodicy that may have helped to facilitate dramatic social change. Weber was a social action theorist 🡪 evolution of new religious ideas can stimulate social & economic change

• Calvinism is a form of Ascetic (self denying) Protestantism, with strong discipline, increase of Calvinism in Western Europe allowed for social change to happen, in the form of capitalism, through normative conditions (values)

Calvinism & Protestant Work Ethic

predestination, solution was to become involved in ‘intense worldly activity’ 🡪 hard work and material success were seen as religious virtues and a possible sign of being ‘chosen’

• Emphasis on values: hard work, trade,profit,punctuality.avoidance of laziness→Led to capitalism 🡪 pursuit of wealth and making money BUT also focused on reinvestment in business = good capitalist behaviour and also excellent religious morality

weber and religion: leadership leading to social change

influential religious leaders who challenged legal rational authority – charismatic leaders in particular.

• Charisma – people obey a religious leader due to qualities: Cults and sects, Jesus

• Traditional – tradition and support: responsible for change in the face of modernising regimes (Afghanistan & Islamic Leaders)

• Legal-rational – laws and regulations. Orders are only to be obeyed if they are relevant to the situation. Influence from leaders in the law system/government. 

criticisms of weber

• countries with alarge Calvinist population didn’t industrialise, like Norway. 

• Marshall pointed out that Weber did not claim that Calvinism caused capitalism, he only suggested that it was a major contributor. 

• slavery,colonialism and piracy were more important than Calvinist beliefs in accumulating the capital required for industrialisation. 

• Kautsky,capitalism,predates Calvinism. capitalists attracted to Calvinism it made their interests appear legitimate.

Neo Marxism and fundamentalism

• in order to control society you will need to persuade the masses that the existing system is good and fair for everyone.

• GRAMSCI HEGEMONY: ideological control that the ruling class elite have over the masses.

• BUT 🡪 dual character 

• Counter Hegemony 🡪 some clergy may act as intellectuals who support WC organisations such as trade unions

Liberation Theory & Maduro

• some Neo-Marxists question the view that religion is always a conservative force…..

• Maduro believes that religion can be a revolutionary force that brings about change: clergy could provide guidance for the oppressed in their struggle with dominant groups, religiosity inspired social change

evaluation of Neo Marxists religion as social change

• depends on how social change is defined

• Overlooks the power of the ruling class to use religion to keep their status in society and use religion and other institutions as ISAs

World-affirming groups

accept society as it is and offer individuals the opportunity for self improvement within it.

World-accommodating groups

accept the dominant norms and values of society, and members will live similar lifestyle to others members of society.

World-rejecting groups

opposition to the world and reject many of the dominant norms and values of society and replace them with alternative beliefs and practices. 

Religious Organisations

Sociologists have based the categorisation on the following:

• Structure

• Relationship with the state

• Attitudes to wider society

• Size

• Membership

• Commitment from members

sects and cults

Are seen as more deviant – involve beliefs or behaviour that is seen as odd, weird or bizarre or they are a threat to existing society. 

Sect and cult are often used interchangeably in the media. Barker 1989 – terms have a stigmatised and negative meaning (extremists, brainwashed, harmful, robots), they should be abandoned. 

sects

wilson- exist in a state of tension or conflict with wider society, tests of merit on their members, exercises stern discipline regulating the beliefs, total commitment, charismatic leader

monopoly of truth, aim to transform society, less organised than a church, more exclusive, usually break away from a major church

cults

wallis and bruce:

1. loose knit groupings open to all 

2. Highly individualistic – Giddens 2006

3. Little discipline or commitment

4. Aldridge 2007 – cults offer one route of realisation among many. 

5. Followers as clients or customers

embrace a wide range of beliefs some of which may be non religious

highly critical of societal values, opposition to mainstream church, charismatic, tolerant of other belief systems, focus on individual needs, loosely organised, individualistic, new and independent

church and denominations

church: accepting/ conservative, strict hierarchy and highly organised, very large, monopoly of truth, minimal commitment, often closely liked to the state/government, refers to major world religions, closest to the state traditional religion end

denominations:  generally accepting, organised but less so than a church, smaller than a church, tolerant of other belief system, more commitment than a church, no formal link to the state, often formed from a sect, sits between a church and a sect

types of cults

stark and barbridge:

1. Audience Cults – provide little beyond services for an individual, consumed individually and spread by the media

2. Client Cults – more organisation and offer services such as therapy 

3. Cult Movements – more organised, wider range of activities, support, involvement and commitment (Scientology)

new age movements

diverse spiritual subcultures emphasising self-spirituality, individuality, personal growth, late modernity as alternatives to traditional, hierarchical religions. Key sociological themes include detraditionalisation, individualism (pick-and-mix spirituality, "spiritual shopping"), and a focus on self-help

gender and belief

women are generally more religious than men, but it still expresses an element of male dominance. davie; images of god men see god as more powerful and as a god of power and control whereas women see god as of love, comfort and forgiveness

sexuality and religion

women’s sexuality is felt to be dangerous by many religions, women’s periods and births leads to them having greater capacity to ‘pollute’, presence distracts men

turner- a disciplinary role with respect to sexuality is central, degree of policy the body in religion, importance of asceticism in religion.

AO2: catholic priests abstinence, nuns married to god

patriarchy in religion

• religious scriptures/organisations: written and interpreted by men, anti female, male domination in organisations

• patriarchal doctrines

• places of worshipping: segregated sexes

• veiling of women

• women as pollution/ temptresses

• religious laws and customs: regulate norms and traditions, domestic and reproductive role

Armstrong- exclusion of women from priesthood as evidence fro marginalisation

however, may religions place women at the centre, Kali (Hindu goddess), Egyptian goddesses, feminist cults

ethnicity and religion

• family pressures

• examples of ethnic minority groups in societies that have higher levels of religiosity

• belonging in ethnic groups means that religion can become an important sense of community and solidarity

• maintains cultural identities

• socialisation can maintain strong pressure on cultures to maintain religious commitments

• deals with oppression

case study examples of ethnicity and religion: john bird

Pentecostalism has played a duel role for Afro Caribbean people in British society: enabled them to cope with racism in society

opium for the people

beaford suggests it gives them a sense of hope and independence

pyrce argues it encourages hard work, sexual morality, prudent management of finances, support of the family

Islamophobia

twin towers, war on terror

52% of USA dont respect Muslims

38% of uk dont respect Muslims

1 in 4 muslims in us, France, UK arent treated fairly

murza et al; increase in religiosity and identification with islam

greater identification with 2nd and 3rd generation shown by:

• greater wearing of the hijab

• greater identification with worldwide Muslim communities

• growing membership of political Muslim groups

• demands for education, financial and legal arrangements with sharia law: British foreign law, decline of other sources of identity, multicultural policies: invasion of Iraq, trade unions, important to recognise, respect cultural differences, more faith schools

English church census: 18,750 churches

83% of churchgoers are white, 10% black, 7% other

non white church attendance has increased by 19% since 1998, white churchgoing has decreased by 19%

black church attendance is 3X the proportion of the population

3500 churches closed from 2014-24

Pentecostal involvement has increased 30%

social class and religion

not much reliable info

traditional Marxists- biggest among deprived social classes

Weber theodicy of disprivelledge- highest to the disadvantaged and marginalised

established churches are mc dominated- leaders tend to be privileged

youstov- 60% churchgoers mc, 38% wc

sects attract more from marginalised groups, cults attract a cross section

age and religion + AO3

religiosity among young people has diminished

71% 18-24 say they have no religion

young Muslims: Islamic identify in young people, Muslim identity strong across all ages, 72% have a strong identity

Mayo: despite decline in religiosity increase in spirituality stays continuing among young people

buther- cultural hybridity, greater freedom from the patriarchal attitudes expressed by many white girls

defining secularisation- wilson

the processes whereby religious beliefs, practices, institutions lose social significance

statistics for secularisation in the uk

46.2% religious, 37.2% non religious

5% go to church regularly

average age of a churchgoer in the uk is 65

1650 churches closed between 1970-2002

islam is the fastest growing religion in the uk

75% claimed to never have been influenced by a religious leader

substantative definition of religion = belief in a supernatural force (secualrisation)

wilson- secularisation because people accept more rational explanations of the world

good- conforms to a widespread view of religion as a belief in god

bad- no room for religious practices that perform similar functions, western bias

functional definition of religion= defines in terms of its societal effect (secularisation)

wilson- rejects secularisation because religion still exists, perhaps in different forms to different traditional religions

good- aligns to a wide range of beliefs and practices that perform functions such as integration, no non-western bias

bad- just because of integration doesnt make it a religion e.g. charity or football

secularisation

hauman- age of faith; increases religious communal, focus on the religious behaviour of the elites (more documentation), less information on majority of population, The past has no more or less religious than the present

restriction on non religious behaviour on a Sunday: freedom has increased within a multicultural society

religion in america

wilson-45% got to church on sundays, however argues its still secularised as religion has become superficial

burce- america is becoming more secular society: declining church attendance, secularisation from within, religious diversify

religious market theory

stark and bainbridge; golden age of religion has been suggested, but propose a religious market theory based;

1. People are naturally religious and religion meets humans needs

2. human nature to seek rewards and avoids costs

cycle of renewable: stark and bainbridge

secularisation: religious organisations move to fit in with the new secular views → innovation: people turn to different organisation such as NRMs → revival: revolutionised are renewed as organisations rebuild religious influence in society → new religious or beliefs becomes more organised and bureaucratic: secularisation begins again

therefore religion never dies or disappears: fundamental need, religious compensators

berger - scared canopy

yinger- inanswerable questions

global secularisation

religion is as overwhelming and dominant as ever (84% of the world population affiliated with a religion)

too much focus on westernised industrial churches

predictions that by 2050 fewer people will be unaffiliated with a religion: 2010- 16% 2050- 13%

religious revival: evangelical, Muslims

evidence for secularisation

1. decline of religious beliefs and thinking: rationalisation

bruce: scientific explanations, more rational thinking, in organised and religion as a last resort

weber: growing disenchantment, desacralisation of consciousness- too rational to experience a sense of sacredness and mystery in life

2. decline of religious practices: less attachment, declining christian membership and attendance, decline of Sunday school

voas an crockett- belief and belonging is falling at a similar rate

3. decline of religious institutions:

bruce- church in middle ages was a dominating social institution, christian festivals have little meaning, decline in churches, decline in religion in schools

herberg- secularisation from within religious institutions

bryman- disneyfication of religion: diluted form of religion

4. other evidence:

fragmentation of beliefs: wide diveristt of beliefs

growth in indiviual spirituality : lyotard (metanarrative of religion has lost its power, pick n mix of beliefs), bruce (most involvementis shallow and not an alterntaive to traditional religion)

decline in religious knowledge

against secularisation

1. resacralisation: greely ‘renewal or continuity of religious beliefs’

traditional thinking decreased but other thinking has increased: biery sects 2.4% in 2000, 3.1% in 2010

people are believing in ‘hybrids’ (post-modernity) to suit needs

2. individuation: davie ‘believing without belonging’

3. traditonal religion remains strong: values from religion staying string in the uk: growing Pentecostalism, evangelical is the fastest growing denomination. fundamental beliefs and religion cant be argued as being ‘watered down’

4. cultural defence and transition: high religiosity among ethic minorities, cultural defence, cultural transition

fundamentalism

characteristics: authoritative sacred text, aggressive reaction, use of modern tech, patriarchy, prophecy, conspiracy

modernity; davie- trad beliefs threatened, giddens- reaction to globalisation, bauman- response in post modernity- freedom of choice

secular fundamentalism- davie; optimism of enlightenment since 1970s under attack, concerns about environment led to a loss in faith, france- bans on hijabs, yugoslavia- ethnic cleansing

clash of civilisations

globalisation in India- economic growth, Hindu consumerism

Pentecostalism in Latin america

globalisation of religion