EXAM 5 BIOPSY

learning

the brain's ability to change in response to experience

memory

the brain's ability to store and access the learned effects of experiences

Henry Molaison/HM

an epileptic who had his medial (H.M.) - An temporal lobes removed in 1953

- Surgery removed most of the hippocampus and amygdala

- Had an almost total inability to form new long -term memories: Anterograde Amnesia

- Had an almost total inability to form new long -term memories: Anterograde Amnesia

anterograde amnesia

__________________ __________

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

___________ ___________

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

hippocampus

amygdala

Henry Molaison an epileptic who had his medial (H.M.) temporal lobes removed in 1953

- Surgery removed most of the ________________and _______________ (struc.)

LTM

STM

H.M. was unable to form most types of ___________________, his______________was intact

digit span

The number of digits a person can remember.

- used as a measure of the capacity of STM

- H.M. could repeat digits provided the time between learning & recall was within the duration of STM

mirror drawing

incomplete pictures

implicit

H.M improves with practice on sensorimotor tasks (e.g. __________ ___________) and on a non sensorimotor task (e.g. ____________ ____________) - without recalling previous practice sessions

- __________/___________memory still in tact

classical conditioning

H.M. Readily "learns" responses through __________ _______________, but has no memory of conditioning trials

repetition priming tests

used to assess implicit memory; performance in identifying word fragments is improved when the words have been seen before

- incomplete picture test

implicit

Repetition-priming tests are used to assess __________ memory. One example is an Incomplete-Pictures Test

incomplete pictures test

Repetition-priming tests are used to assess implicit memory. One example is an _________ __________ _______

medial temporal

consolidation

3 Major Scientific Contributions of H.M.'s case

- ________ ____________ lobes are inv in memory

- STM, remote memory, and LTM are distinctly separate - H.M. is unable to move memories from STM to LTM, a problem with memory ________________

- Memory may exist but not be recalled - as when H.M. exhibits a skill he does not know he has learned (explicit vs. implicit)

implicit/procedural

__________ memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

explicit/declarative

__________ memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit

explicit

medial temporal lobe amnesia

H.M.'s ability to form __________, but not ___________, long -term memories is often seen in cases of ________ ___________ ________ _________

explicit

episodic

semantic

__________memories are divided into two categories:

- __________ memory (memories for the events of one's own life)

- Issues more common with this type of amnesia

- ___________ memory (memories for general facts or information)

episodic

__________ memory (memories for the events of one's own life)

- Issues more common with this

semantic

___________ memory (memories for general facts or information)

Hippocampus

Medial temporal cortex

_______________ & _________ _____________ ___________ (struc.)

spatial location & episodic memory

Perirhinal cortex

__________ ________(struc.)

- (part of medial temporal cortex)

- object recognition and Inferotemporal cortex together play a role in storing memories of visual input

Inferotemporal

(struc.)

Perirhinal cortex (part of medial temporal cortex) - object recognition and ________________ cortex together play a role in storing memories of visual input

amygdala

______________ (struc.)

role in memory for emotional significance for experiences (strengthens memories about emotional events that are stored by other structures)

prefrontal cortex

(struc.)

• Temporal order of events

- Those with damage to ___________ _________ have difficulties with tasks involving a series of responses

• Different part of *____________ __________ may mediate different types of working memory

- Some evidence from functional brain imaging studies

Cerebellum

_____________ (struc.)

Stores memories of learned sensorimotor skills (e.g., procedural memories & conditioned eye -blink response)

striatum

___________ (struc.)

Memories for consistent relationships between stimuli and responses (habit formation)

consolidation

engram

During _______________, the brain forms a more or less permanent physical representation of a memory.

- Resulting in an ___________(memory trace): physical basis for memory (change in brain that stores memory)

engram/memory trace

__________/____________ ________

physical basis for memory (change in brain that stores memory)

Retrieval

prefrontal

__________: the process of accessing stored memories.

• The ___________ area is believed to direct the search strategy required for retrieval.

Reconsolidation

__________________: the return of an engram to stable long-term storage after it has been temporarily made unstable during process of recall.

glutamate

_____________ required both for consolidation & retrieval

Consolidation

retrieval

glutamate require for ____________ & ___________

Hebb rule

_______ ______: If the axon of a presynaptic neuron is active while the postsynaptic neuron is firing (co-occurrence), the synapse will be strengthened.

- "cells that fire together wire together!"

- Changes in synaptic efficiency are the basis of LTM

synaptic efficiency

according to hebb rule, Changes in ________ ____________ are the basis of LTM

Long term potentiation/LTP

_______ _______ _________________: increase in synaptic strength that occurs when presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons are both activated (co-occurrence).

- Synapses are effectively made stronger by repeated stimulation

Hippocampus

where is LTP studied :

- dentate gyrus

- CA1 subfield

- CA2 subfield

- CA3 subfield

- CA4 subfield

of ____________

drug

_______

chemical compounds administered to produce a desired change in the body

psychopharmacology

________________

study of how drugs affect the nervous system and behavior

psychoactive

_________________ drugs influence subjective experience (mood and thoughts) and behavior by acting on the nervous system

- also used to manage neuropsychological illness

drug administration

route of admin influxes the rate at which and the degree to which the drug reaches its site of action

ingestion

injection

inhalation

absorbtion

4 drug administrations

ingestion/oral route

(drug administration)

- easy, relatively safe, most common

- most complex; more barriers to cross

- absorption via digestive tract is unpredictable (influenced by food)

inhalation./tobacco, anesthetics, marijuana

(drug administration)

- absorbed through capillaries in lungs

- difficult to regulate doses

- damage to lung tissue

injection

(drug administration)

- bypass digestive tract

- subcutaneously (SC): under the skin

- intramuscularly (M) into large muscles

- intravenously (IV) into veins, drug deliver directly to the brain

- effects strong, fast, predictable

- difficult to counteract effects

subcutaneously/SC`

drug administration via injection

- under skin

intramuscularly/IM

drug administration via injection

- into large muscles

intravenously/IV

drug administration via injection

- into veins, drug deliver directly to the brain

- effects strong, fast, predictable

- difficult to counteract effects

absorbtion

(drug administration)

- __________ through mucous membranes

- nose, mouth, rectum

- membranes can be easily damaged

BBB/blood brain barrier

In order for a psychoactive drug to have an effect, it must get to the brain - it must pass through the ______ _________ __________

liver

elimination

- action of most drugs terminated by enzymes in the _______

- Small amounts may also be excreted in urine, sweat, feces, breath, and mother's milk

drug metabolism

converting active drugs to non-active forms (drug unable to pass th5rough lipid cell membrane)

- Small amounts may also be excreted in urine, sweat, feces, breath, and mother's milk

small

uncharged

Drugs developed for the brain must be ______& ______________or they must be structurally similar to a substance that already has an active transporter that allows it to pass the BBB

astrocyte feet

capillaries in the brain have tight junctions and are covered with __________ _______. These properties pr4event materials from moving in and out easily

endothelial

small, uncharged molecules are able to pass through the ____________ membrane

tight junctions

capillaries in the body have few _______ ____________ materials can move in and out quite easily

synaptic transmission

Drugs can alter chemical processes at any of seven major stages of _______ ____________

• Increasing/decreasing the synthesis of NTs.

• Destroy degrading enzymes or causing vesicles to leak.

• Increasing release of NT or blocking release

• Blocking inhibitory effect of autoreceptor or activate autoreceptor.

• Blocking the breakdown into inactive chemical.

• Directly stimulating or blocking postsynaptic receptors

agonist

amphetamine

cocaine

example of ___________

- ____________ and ___________ block the reuptake of dopamine and promotes the release of dopamine

antagonist

chlorpromazine

example of _____________

- _____________occupies the dopamine site on the D2 receptor, preventing receptor activation

MAO inhibitor

______ ____________ inhibits the breakdown of serotonin so that more is available for release

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors/SSRIs

_________ __________ __________ _________ block transporter protein for serotonin reuptake so that serotonin stay in synaptic clefts longer

opiates

- analgesia or pain relief

- hypnotic or sleep inducting

- euphoria or strong feelings of happiness

- morphine, heroin

- similar to endorphins

morphine

- opiate used to treat the pain of wounds, surgery, and cancer

heroin

- synthesized from morphine

- opiate

- produces intensely pleasurable effects

- crosses the BBB easily and rapidly

- user may be unaware of the drugs purity

- tolerance develops rapidly, increasing the chance of overdose

endorphins

opioid

dopamine

______________

- endogenous opiates

- produce pain relief by stimulating ________ receptors

- produce additional positive effects by indirectly stimulating _________ pathways

learned tolderance

_________ ______________ develops between tolerance and the environment in which it develops

- drug taken in different setting are more likely to result in an overdose

depressants

_____________ are dugs that reduce central nervous system activity, causing

- sedation; anxiety reduction, hypnotic effects

- alcohol is most commonly used and abused

alcohol

___________ is most commonly used and abused depressant

- low doses: stimulant, by turning off cortical inhibition, reducing social constraints and anxiety

- high doses: produces sedative and hypnotic effects, impairing cognitive and motor functioning

glutamate

GABA

alcohol affects several NTM systems

- inhibits __________

- acts at alcohol receptor, part of the ________ receptor complex; it increases binding of (most prevalent inhibitory transmitter) to the receptor

- combined effect is sedation, anxiety reduction, muscled relaxation, and inhibition of cognitive and motor skills

delirium tremens/DTs

withdrawal from alcohol

- hallucinations, delusions, confusion, rapid heartbeat, seizures and in extreme cases possible death

stimulants

_________ activate or increase CNS activity to produce arousal, increased alertness, and elevated mood

- cocaine

- amphetamines and methamphetamines

cocaine

- produces euphoria, decreased appetite, increases alertness, relieves fatigue

- blocks the reuptake of dopamine and serotonin at synapses, enhancing their effect

- users have executive function deficits that involve the prefrontal cortex

amphetamines

methamphetamines

________________ and __________________

- most widely misused

- produce euphoria and increase confidence and concentration

- increase the release of norepinephrine and dopamine

- long term use may damage dopamine neurons in the nigrostriatal pathways increasing risk of developing Parkinson's disease

nigrostriatal

Parkinsons

long term use of Amphetamines and methamphetamines may damage dopamine neurons in the ___________ pathways increasing risk of developing _________________ disease

nicotine

_________ is the primary psychoactive and addictive agent in tobacco

- stimulates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

- PNS, activates muscles and may causes twitching

- CNS, produces increased alertness and faster response to stimulation

- teratogenic effects (disturbs normal development of fetus)

- high levels of drug craving

marijuana

agonist

anandamide

________________

- psychoactive effects from thc

- thc is an __________ at g protein-linked receptors (CB1) used by endogeneous cannabinoid NTM (____________)

- high doses can impair STM and motor functions, distorted sensations, and paranoia

- linked between adolescent use and development of schizophrenia

- several therapeutic effects: suppresses nausea & vomiting, blocks seizures, reduces anxiety & multiple sclerosis symptoms

tolerance

decreased sensitivity to a drug as a consequence of exposure

- shift in the dose-response curve to the right

cross tolerance

- response to a novel drug is reduced because of trolerance developed in response to a related drug

- suggests that the 2 drugs affect a common nervous system target

- example Barbiturates (Amytal) and benzodiazepines (Valium) affect the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA

metabolic

functional

two categories of changes underlie drug rolerance

__________ & ____________

metabolic

drug tolerance that results fron changes that reduce the amont of drug getting to its cites of action (target cells)

functional

- drug tolerance that results from changes that reduce the responsiveness at the site of action

- fewer receptors; decreases efficiency of binding at receptors; receptors less responsive

withdrawal

- seen when drug use is terminated

- symptoms are the opposite of the drugs effects

- body has made changes to compensate for drugs presence- functions normally with the drug present

- severity varies with drug and pattern of use

drug addiction

- use drugs despite adverse effects

- is not the same as physical dependence

- preventing withdrawal symptoms is not the main motivating factor

- not restricted to drugs (food, gambling, internet, sex)

contingent drug tolerance

before and after design shows that tolerance only develops to drug effects that are experienced

• Rats given alcohol one hour before or after convulsive amygdala stimulation

• Test trial: both groups given alcohol before convulsive stimulation

• Results: alcohol no longer prevented seizures in the

conditioned drug tolerance

maximal tolerance effects that are seen in the envinronment in which a drug is usually taken (drug predictive stimuli)

- Pavlovian conditioning trial

exteroceptive

interoceptive

conditioned stimuli

conditioned compensatory responses

___________________ (external or public) cues or _________________(internal or private) cues associated with drug-taking become _____________ _____________ (CS) that elicit ___________________ ________________ ________________ (CR):

• Physiological responses opposite to the effects of a drug (body prepares for drug), thought to be elicited by stimuli regularly associated with experiencing drug effects

• produce tolerance prior to drug use or withdrawal in the absence of the drug

pleasure centers

brain circuitry exists that reinforces behavior

- many species will work for stimulation in brain ________ _________

olds milner

skinner

_______& ___________(1954) placed rats in a _______box that allowed self-stimulation of the brain by pressing a lever.

• Rats may press lever thousands of times/hr stimulating the release of dopamine in nucleus accumbens.

• Addictive substances increase dopamine activity in certain areas of the brain, reinforcing drug use

dopamine

nucleus accumbens.

old and milner

- Rats may press lever thousands of times/hr stimulating the release of ___________ in ___________ _______________

mesotelencephalic dopamine system

Dopaminergic neurons projecting from two midbrain areas to the telencephalon

- nigrostriatal pathway

- Mesocorticolimbic pathway ***

nigrostriatal

___________ pathway of Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System

- Substantia nigra neurons projecting to the dorsal striatum (degenerates in Parkinson's disease)

Substantia nigra

dorsal striatum

nigrostriatal pathway of Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System

- __________ _______ neurons projecting to the ________ _________ (degenerates in Parkinson's disease)

parkinsons disease

Substantia nigra neurons projecting to dorsal striatum (degenerates in __________ ___________)

Mesocorticolimbic

__________________________ pathway

-Ventral tegmental area neurons projecting to cortical and limbic sites, including the nucleus accumbens (the major "reward" pathway for ICSS, natural rewards, & addictive drugs)

Ventral tegmental

cortical limbic

nucleus accumbens

Mesocorticolimbic pathway

- ___________ _____________ area neurons projecting to ________ and ________ sites, including the _____________ _______________(the major "reward" pathway for ICSS, natural rewards, & addictive drugs)

nucleus accumbens

the major "reward" pathway for ICSS, natural rewards, & addictive drugs

Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System

Nigrostriatal

Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System

green

___________ pathway

mesocorticolimbic

Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System

red

___________ pathway

dopamine

Nucleus Accumbens

• Almost all abused drugs stimulate ___________ release in the __________ ______________

- small subcortical area rich in dopamine receptors (responsible for feelings of pleasure)