APES Unit 2

biosphere

region of our planet where life resides; combo of all ecosystems on earth

producer

uses sun energy to produce usable forms of energy (autotroph)

photosynthesis

when producers use solar energy to convert CO2+H2O to C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2 (captures energy)

cellular respiration

when cells unlock energy of chemical compounds (releases energy)

aerobic respiration

cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy, CO2 and H2O

anaerobic respiration

cells convert glucose into energy without oxygen

consumer

incapable of photosynthesis; obtains energy by consuming other organisms

primary consumer

(herbivore) eats producers directly (ex: rabbit, cow)

carnivore

a consumer that eats other consumers

secondary consumer

a carnivore that eats primary consumers (ex: humans eat cows, deer)

tertiary consumer

a carnivore that eats secondary consumers (ex: when we eat gator, bear, big fish)

trophic level

the successive levels of organisms consuming one another

food chain

sequence of consumption from producers to tertiary consumers

food web

complex model of how energy and matter move between trophic levels

scavenger

consumes dead animals (ex: vulture, buzzard)

detritivore

organism that breaks down dead tissues and waste products into smaller particles for consumption (ex: dung beetle)

decomposer

fungi and bacteria convert organic matter into small elements and molecules that can be recycled back into the ecosystem

gross primary productivity (GPP)

The total amount of solar energy that producers in an ecosystem capture via photosynthesis over a given amount of time

net primary productivity (NPP)

The energy captured by producers in an ecosystem minus the energy producers respire

biomass

total mass of all living matter in a specific area

standing crop

The amount of biomass present in an ecosystem at a particular time

ecological efficiency

The proportion of consumed energy that can be passed from one trophic level to another

trophic pyramid

a representation of the distribution of biomass, numbers, or energy among levels (assumes 10% ecological efficiency, efficiencies range 5-20%)

Biogeochemical cycle

The movements of matter within and between ecosystems

Hydrologic cycle

The movement of water through the biosphere:

Evaporation: The sun heats water in oceans, lakes, and rivers, turning liquid water into water vapor that rises into the atmosphere.

Transpiration: Plants absorb water through their roots and release it as water vapor from pores in their leaves.

Condensation: Water vapor in the air cools and changes back into liquid droplets, forming clouds and fog

Precipitation: Condensed water in clouds grows heavy and falls back to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

Runoff and Infiltration: Water that falls on land either flows over the surface into streams and oceans (runoff) or soaks into the soil (infiltration and percolation) to become groundwater

carbon cycle

The movement of carbon around the biosphere:

producers take carbon from atmosphere through photosynthesis and pass it on to consumers and decomposers. some inorganic carbon sediments precipitate out of water to form sedimentary rocks. some organic carbon may be buried and become fossil fuels. respiration returns carbon to the atmosphere and water, so does combustion of fossil fuels.

macronutrient

One of six key elements that organisms need in relatively large amounts: nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur

limiting nutrient

A nutrient required for the growth of an organism but available in a lower quantity than other nutrients

nitrogen fixation

The process that converts nitrogen gas in the atmosphere (N2) into forms of nitrogen that producers can use.

Nitrification

The conversion of ammonia (NH4+) into nitrite (NO2– ) and then into nitrate (NO3– )

Assimiliation

The process by which producers incorporate elements into their tissues

Mineralization

The process by which fungal and bacterial decomposers break down the organic matter found in dead bodies and waste products and convert it into inorganic compounds

Ammonification

The process by which fungal and bacterial decomposers break down the organic nitrogen found in dead bodies and waste products and convert it into inorganic ammonium (NH4+)

Denitrification

The conversion of nitrate (NO3–) in a series of steps into the gases nitrous oxide (N2O) and, eventually, nitrogen gas (N2), which is emitted into the atmosphere

Leaching

The transportation of dissolved molecules through the soil via groundwater

Phosphorus cycle

the movement of phosphorus around the biosphere:

begins with weathering or mining of phosphate rocks and use of phosphate fertilizer, which releases phosphorus into soil and water. it’s then used by producers and moves thru food web. In water, phosphorus can precipitate out of solution and form sediments, which over time are transformed into new phosphate rocks.

algal bloom

A rapid increase in the algal population of a waterway

hypoxic

low in oxygen

dead zone

when oxygen concentrations become so low that it kills fish and other aquatic animals

phosphorus cycle does not exist in the:

atmosphere

sulfur cycle

The movement of sulfur around the biosphere:

sulfur rocks are weathered over time and release sulfate ions that producers can take up and assimilate, passes thru food web. volcanoes, the burning of fossil fuels, and the mining of copper put sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere. then, sulfur dioxide combines with water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). This sulfuric acid is carried back to Earth when it rains or snows.

most sulfur exists as:

rocks

what is a natural source of air pollution

volcanoes

disturbance

An event, caused by physical, chemical, or biological agents, resulting in changes in population size or community composition (ex: hurricane, nuclear bomb)

resistance

A measure of how much a disturbance can affect flows of energy and matter in an ecosystem (ex: how much weight you put on the bar)

resilience

The rate at which an ecosystem returns to its original state after a disturbance (ex: how much time you take between sets)

restoration ecology

The study and implementation of restoring damaged ecosystems back to normal state

watershed (or river basin)

All land in a given landscape that drains into a particular stream, river, lake, or wetland

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

The hypothesis that ecosystems experiencing intermediate levels of disturbance are more diverse than those with high or low disturbance levels (ex: be somewhere in the middle: pushes you to develop, but allows you to recover)

climate

The average weather that occurs in a given region over a long period of time (long term)

weather

The short-term conditions of the atmosphere in a local area, which include temperature, humidity, clouds, precipitation, and wind speed.

troposphere

A layer of the atmosphere closest to the surface of Earth, extending up to approximately 16 km (10 miles), where weather occurs

stratosphere

layer of atmosphere above troposphere, where the ozone layer is (16-50km, 10-31 mi) filters UV radiation, keeps us safe

temperature does what with altitude?

it increases

As the Sun's energy passes through the atmosphere and strikes land and water, it warms the surface of Earth. But this warming does not occur evenly across the planet because:

The angle at which the Sun's rays strike varies.

The amount of surface area over which the Sun's rays are distributed varies.

Some areas of Earth reflect more solar energy than others.

Albedo: The percentage of incoming sunlight reflected from a surface.

Albedo

The percentage of incoming sunlight reflected from a surface. Earth’s average is about 30%

what is the earth’s axis of rotation is tilted at

23.5 degrees

seasons:

june solstice - summer; sun faces northern

september equinox - fall; sun directly over equator

December solstice - winter; sun away from northern hemisphere

March equinox - spring; sun directly over equator

saturation point

The maximum amount of water vapor in the air at a given temperature

adiabatic rate

estimates temp change per 1000ft in elevation (decreases 3.3F in wet NC, but 5.5F in dry AZ)

adiabatic cooling

The cooling effect of reduced pressure on air as it rises higher in the atmosphere and expands.

adiabatic heating

The heating effect of increased pressure on air as it sinks toward the surface of Earth and decreases in volume

latent heat release

The release of energy when water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into liquid water

atmospheric convection current

Global patterns of air movement that are initiated by the unequal heating of Earth

hadley cell

A convection current in the atmosphere that cycles between the equator and 30°N and 30°S

Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

The latitude that receives the most intense sunlight, which causes the ascending branches of the two Hadley cells to converge.

polar cell

A convection current in the atmosphere, formed by air that rises at 60°N and 60°S and sinks at the poles, 90°N and 90°S

ferrell cell

A convection current in the atmosphere that lies between Hadley cells and polar cells.

coriolis effect

The deflection of an object’s path due to the rotation of Earth. The prevailing winds of the world are produced by a combination of atmospheric convection currents and the Coriolis effect.

if you’re moving TO the equator from north or south, objects are deflected to the:

west (ex: hurricanes move from Africa to north america, curve back to north east)

rain shadow

A region with dry conditions found on the leeward side (away from wind) of a mountain range as a result of humid winds from the ocean causing precipitation on the windward side.

ocean currents

driven by temperature, gravity, prevailing winds, Coriolis effect, and location of continents. they move warm and cold water around the globe

warm water like warm air does what

expands and rises

gyre

A large-scale pattern of water circulation that moves clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

upwelling

The upward movement of ocean water toward the surface as a result of diverging currents. brings nutrients from the ocean bottom that support large populations of producers, which in turn support large populations of fish. (west coast side of each continent, south America is most prominent)

Thermohaline circulation

An oceanic circulation pattern that drives the mixing of surface water and deep water. Scientists believe this process is crucial for moving heat and nutrients around the globe. it appears to be driven by surface waters that contain unusually large amounts of salt.

sinking of dense, salty water in the north Atlantic drives a deep, cold current that moves slowly around the world

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

A reversal of wind and water currents in the South Pacific.Every 3 to 7 years, the interaction of the Earth's atmosphere and ocean cause surface currents in the tropical Pacific Ocean to reverse direction. In a normal year, trade winds push warm surface waters away from the coast of South America and promote the upwelling of water from the ocean bottom. In an El Niño year, trade winds weaken or reverse direction, so warm waters build up along the west coast of Peru.

La Nina year

a second system that enhances what the normal climate of a location is. opposite of El nino. (in a place normally cold, it will be even colder this year)

terrestrial biome

A geographic region categorized by a particular combination of average annual temperature, annual precipitation, and distinctive plant growth forms on land.

aquatic biome

An aquatic region characterized by a particular combination of salinity, depth, and water flow.

climate diagram

display monthly temperature and precipitation values, which help determine the productivity of a biome.

tundra

A cold and treeless biome with low-growing vegetation.

In winter, the soil is completely frozen.

The tundra's growing season is very short, usually only about 4 months during summer.

The underlying subsoil is known as permafrost.

Permafrost - An impermeable, permanently frozen layer of soil.

Boreal forest

A forest biome made up primarily of coniferous evergreen trees that can tolerate cold winters and short growing seasons.

Boreal forests are found between about 50˚ and 60˚ N in Europe, Russia, and North America.

This subarctic biome has a very cold climate, and plant growth is more constrained by temperature than precipitation.

The soil is nutrient-poor due to slow decomposition.

temperate rainforest

A coastal biome typified by moderate temperatures and high precipitation.

Found along the west coast of North America from northern California to Alaska, in southern Chile, on the west coast of New Zealand, and on the island of Tasmania.

Ocean currents moderate temperature fluctuations and provide a source of water vapor.

Nearly 12-month growing season where winters are rainy and summers are foggy.

Mild temperatures and high precipitation support growth of very large trees.

temperate seasonal forest

(WE LIVE HERE) a biome with warm summers and cold winters with over 1 m (39 inches) of precipitation annually.

Found in the eastern United States, Japan, China, Europe, Chile, and eastern Australia.

Dominated by broadleaf deciduous trees such as beech, maple, oak, and hickory.

Warmer summer temperatures favor decomposition; soils generally contain more nutrients than those of boreal forests.

woodland/shrubland

A biome characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.

Found on the coast of southern California, southern Australia, southern Africa, and in the area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.

There is a 12-month growing season, but plant growth is constrained by low precipitation in summer and by relatively low temperatures in winter.

Wildfires are common and plants of this biome are well adapted to both fire and drought.

temperate grassland/cold desert

A biome characterized by cold, harsh winters, and hot, dry summers.

Lowest average annual precipitation of any temperate biome.

Found in the Great Plains of North America, in South America, and in central Asia and eastern Europe.

Plant growth constrained by both insufficient precipitation in summer and cold temperatures in winter.

Plants include grasses and nonwoody flowering plants well-adapted to wildfires and frequent grazing by animals.

tropical rainforest

A warm and wet biome found between 20°N and 20°S of the equator, with little seasonal temperature variation and high precipitation.

Average annual temperatures exceed 20˚C.

Found in Central and South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and northeastern Australia.

Precipitation occurs frequently; warm and wet with little temperature variation.

Tropical rainforests contain more biodiversity per hectare than any other terrestrial biome; contain up to two-thirds of Earth's terrestrial species.

tropical seasonal forest/savanna

A biome marked by warm temperatures and distinct wet and dry seasons.

Tropical seasonal forests are common in much of Central America, on the Atlantic coast of South America, in southern Asia, in northwestern Australia, and in sub-Saharan Africa.

Soil in this biome is fairly fertile and can be farmed due to high decomposition rates, but the low amount of precipitation constrains plants from using the soil nutrients that are released.

Grasses and scattered deciduous trees are common.

subtropical desert

A biome prevailing at approximately 30°N and 30°S, with hot temperatures, extremely dry conditions, and sparse vegetation.

The Mojave Desert in the southwestern United States, the Sahara in Africa, the Arabian Desert of the Middle East, and the Great Victoria Desert of Australia are all subtropical deserts.

Cacti, euphorbs, and succulent plants are well adapted to this biome.

streams and rivers

Flowing fresh water that may originate from underground springs or as runoff from rain or melting snow.

Streams are typically narrow and carry relatively small amounts of water where rivers are usually wider and carry larger amounts of water.

lakes and ponds

Lakes and ponds contain standing water, at least some of which is too deep to support emergent vegetation.

Lakes are larger than ponds but there is no clear point at which a pond is considered large enough to be called a lake.

littoral zone

The shallow zone of soil and water in lakes and ponds where most algae and emergent plants grow.

limnetic zone

A zone of open water in lakes and ponds.

phytoplankton

Floating algae

profundal zone

A region of water where sunlight does not reach, below the limnetic zone in very deep lakes.

benthic zone

The muddy bottom of a lake, pond, or ocean.

oligotrophic

Describes a lake with a low level of productivity.

mesotrophic

Describes a lake with a moderate level of productivity.

eutrophic

Describes a lake with a high level of productivity.