AP PSYCH - unit 3.2: developmental psychology

developmental psychology studies how changes in our biology and social situations over our lifespan influence our development

what does developmental psychology study?

- chronological order of development

- themes across the lifespan

what are ways in which developmental psychology is studied?

- stability and change (traits persist, unchanging or changing as we age?)

- nature and nurture (genes or environment?)

- continuous and discontinuous stages of development (gradual development over time or development in stages?)

what are the thematic issues in developmental psychology? (3)

continuous development

development in a slow and continuous process

ex. baby sits up, crawls, stands, then walks

discontinuous development

idea that development takes place in district stages

ex. terrible 2s, adolescence, adulthood

cross-sectional studies

research when people of different ages are compared with one another

pro: can be completed quickly

con: different age groups are not always alike

longitudinal studies

research when the same people are studied over a long period

pro: detailed info about subjects

con: expensive and time-consuming

teratogens

agents that can harm the baby during prenatal development

ex. drugs, alcohol

fetal alcohol syndrome

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking

- low birth weight

- delays in physical and mental abilities

illness, mutations, hormones, the environment

besides teratogens, what else can impact prenatal development? (4)

reflexes

unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli

- go away with time

grasping reflex

touch palm - close fist

rooting reflex

stroke cheek - opens mouth

sucking reflex

touch mouth - sucks on object

babinski reflex

stroke foot - splays toes

moro reflex (startle reflex)

sudden sound - throw out arms

gross motor skills

coordination on large body movements

ex. sitting (6 months), crawling (8 months), walking (1 year)

fine motor skills

coordination on small body movements

ex. pincer grasp

maturation

natural course of development, occurs no matter what; order of biological growth

ex. walking

maturing

the process of becoming an adult

- motor development is universal

- ages of development are at average ages

- physical maturation is genetics influenced by environment

what are the developmental norms of maturation?

critical period

period when certain experiences are required for development

ex. language for humans

imprinting

the process by which animals develop close bonds with the animal it first meets

ex. Konrad and his geese

the eyes have the most limited development, takes 1 year to fully develop

what part of the body has the most limited development?

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood

- earliest age of conscious memory is around 4 years old

the hippocampus is developing

why does infantile amnesia occur?

primary sex characteristics

the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible

ex. ovaries, testes

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics that develop during puberty

ex. body hair

menarche

first menstrual period

spermarche

first ejaculation

sex

the biological distinction between females and males

- determined by chromosomes and hormones; testosterones from testes for males and estrogen from ovaries for females

gender roles

socially constructed roles of males and females

- these change over time

- schemas

- assimilation and accommodation

- four stages of cognitive development

Piaget's cognitive theory of development is based on what key ideas? (3)

schemas

frameworks created by the brain to organize and understand information

- changes because of experiences

ex. A child sees dogs as animals that are furry and have four legs. When they see a cat for the first time, they call it a dog.

assimilation

when we add new information to a schema that we already know

ex. A child who knows that dogs are furry and have four legs sees a cat for the first time and calls it a dog.

accomodation

adjusting our current schemas to incorporate new information

ex. After calling a cat a dog, a child learns that cats are different from dogs (they meow, not bark). The child adjusts their schema to accommodate the new understanding that not all four-legged furry animals are dogs.

maturation (biological growth)

what does Piaget's theory of four stages of cognitive development believe that the force behind cognitive development is?

- sensorimotor stage (0-2)

- preoperational stage (2-7)

- concrete operational stage (7-12)

- formal operational stage (12+)

what are the four stages of cognitive development?

focused on exploration of the world

what is the focus in the sensorimotor stage?

- object permanence

- stranger anxiety

what occurs in the sensorimotor stage?

object permanence

in sensorimotor stage, the awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived

stranger anxiety

in sensorimotor stage, crying when an unfamiliar person approaches

use pretend play and mental symbols

what is the focus in the preoperational stage?

- pretend play

- animism

- centration

- egocentrism (lack theory of mind)

- conservation

- reversibility

what occurs in the preoperational stage?

pretend play

in preoperational stage, the playful use of ideas and symbols

animism

in preoperational stage, the belief that inanimate objects have feelings and act like they're alive

centration

in preoperational stage, focus on one aspect of a situation and exclude other parts

- "spotlight"

egocentrism

in preoperational stage, the difficulty of taking another's point of view

theory of mind

ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts and beliefs, different from our own

conservation

in preoperational stage, the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape

reversibility

in preoperational stage, understanding that things can be reversed

use operational thinking, classification, and can think logically in concrete context

what is the focus in the concrete operational stage?

- logical thought: thinking logically about concrete situations

what occurs in the concrete operational stage?

use abstract and idealist thoughts, hypothetical-deductive reasoning

what is the focus in the formal operational stage?

- hypotheticals

- moral reasoning

- planning for future

- metacognition

what occurs in the formal operational stage?

hypotheticals

in formal operational stage, possible outcomes and consequences; "what if" questions

metacognition

in formal operational stage, the ability to think about how you think

- awareness of strengths and weaknesses and how to use or change them

the environment

what did Vygotsky emphasize in cognitive development of children?

scaffolding

learners complete small, manageable steps to learn more difficult information

ex. A teacher helps a student solve a math problem by guiding them step-by-step at first. As the student gains understanding, the teacher gradually reduces help until the student can solve similar problems independently.

zone of proximal development (ZPD)

the gap between what a child can do and what they cannot do

- where the sweet spot of learning occurs

- needs scaffolding

crystallized intelligence

the ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experiences and prior learning

- increases with age

ex. An older adult uses their knowledge of vocabulary and world history to win a trivia game.

fluid intelligence

the ability to learn new things, reaction times, abstract thinking and quick problem solving

- decreases with age

ex. A young adult quickly solves a new type of puzzle they've never seen before by identifying patterns and thinking logically.

dementia

loss of cognitive function that results in emotional and behavioral changes

ex. Alzheimer's

- authoritarian

- permissive

- authoritative

- negligent

what are Baumrind's parenting styles? (4)

how responsive and how demanding parents are

- parenting is a mix of each with a focus on one

what two traits does Baumrind's parenting styles combine?

authoritatian

parenting style with set rules and expected obedience

- children lack independence and make poor decisions; low self-esteem

ex. A parent tells their child, "Because I said so," when the child asks why they have a strict 8 PM bedtime, and does not allow discussion or input.

permissive

parenting style with few rules and few demands

- children become assertive and impulsive; high self-esteem

ex. A parent lets their child stay up as late as they want, watch any show, and eat candy for dinner without setting rules or consequences.

authoritative

parenting style with set rules and open discussion

- children become self-reliant and have high competence; high self-esteem and initiative

ex. A parent sets a 9 PM bedtime but explains the reason and listens to their child's input, adjusting slightly when appropriate.

negligent

parenting style that is fully uninvolved

ex. A parent is rarely home, doesn't ask about their child's day, and provides little guidance, attention, or emotional support.

authoritative parenting style

what is the best parenting style?

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

traumatic events that occur in childhood that impacts development

ex. physical/mental abuse, growing up during war

- physical/mental health problems

- criminality

- lower intelligence scores

- reduced brain development

what are the results of ACEs on development? (4)

attachment

an emotional bond with another person

Freud's cupboard theory found that infants become attached to those who provide nourishment; attachment is survival

what did Sigmund Freud's cupboard theory state?

the infant monkeys preferred contact with the soft cloth mother over the bottle wire monkey; found that physical contact was important to form attachment and contact comfort is more important than feeding

what did Harry Harlow's monkey experiment find?

conducted experiments to investigate if parenting attachment impacts child's later formation of attachment; found that maternal sensitivity to the infant's needs were important to develop mater attachments

what was the significance of Mary Ainsworth's strange situation experiment in the 1970s?

secure attachment

attachment style where the caregiver consistently responds

children develop healthy relationships, trust, and self-esteem

secure attachment

what attachment style is this?

A toddler explores a new room but regularly checks back with their parent. When the parent leaves, the child is upset but calms down quickly when they return.

anxious attachment

insecure attachment style where the caregiver inconsistently responds

children become needy and have low self-esteem

anxious attachment

what attachment style is this?

A child clings to their parent and is very distressed when the parent leaves. When the parent returns, the child is not easily comforted and may seem both clingy and upset.

avoidant attachment

insecure attachment style where the caregiver has an emotionally distant response

children avoid getting close to others and have difficulty maintaining relationships later on in life

avoidant attachment

what attachment style is this?

A child shows little reaction when their parent leaves the room and avoids seeking comfort when the parent returns, preferring to play independently.

disorganized attachment

insecure attachment style where the caregiver has a confusing mixed response

children develop to crave relationships but avoid them and become confrontational

disorganized attachment

what attachment style is this?

A child approaches their parent when they return but then freezes or suddenly backs away, showing confusion and fear.

temperament

a person's inborn emotional reactivity and intensity

- impacts attachment

identity

one's sense of self

during adolescence

when is the focus on finding identity?

exploration - options to explore for whom they can become

commitment - committing to options

what are the parts that make up finding one's identity?

diffusion, moratorium, foreclosure, achievement

what are the four states of Marcia's identity theory?

identity diffusion

low exploration and low commitment

- no commitment, no exploration, no idea who they are

ex. "I don't know and I don't care what I'm supposed to do with my life"

identity moratorium

high exploration and low commitment

- actively seeking an identity, no commitment

ex. "I'm thinking about what I should do"

identity foreclosure

low exploration and high commitment

- premature commitment with no exploration

ex. "I've made a choice without thinking; I'll be a lawyer because my parents said so"

identity achievement

high exploration and high commitment

- explored options, made identity commitments

ex. "I thought about it and I now know what I should do with my life"

parallel play

activity in which children play side by side without interacting

- turns into pretend play

adolescent egocentrism

heightened self-consciousness and self-absorption during adolescence

- characterized by: imaginary audience and personal fable

imaginary audience

adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern

- everyone is constantly watching and judging which makes adolescents easily embarrassed

ex. A teenager gets a small pimple and feels like everyone at school will notice and judge them for it.

personal fable

adolescents' belief that they are so special, unique, and invincible

- think that their parents can't understand their problems and leads to increased risk-taking

ex. A teenager believes that no one could possibly understand their heartbreak because their feelings are uniquely intense and special.

social clock

shared (cultural) expectation of age-appropriate behavior

ex. when to get married, have kids, etc.

the ecological systems theory explored how different environments influence children's social development

what did Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory explore?

microsystem

in ecological systems theory, the innermost level of the environment, consisting of groups with direct contact with the child

- most influential

ex. A child's relationship with their parents, teachers, and classmates at school.