Comprehensive Sociological Foundations and Theories Study Guide

What is the definition of Sociology?

Sociology is the systematic study of society and social interaction, encompassing groups and their interactions across various scales.

What did C. Wright Mills contribute to sociology?

C. Wright Mills developed the concept of the sociological imagination, which helps individuals understand their personal troubles as part of larger social issues.

What is Verstehen?

Verstehen refers to researchers' attempts to understand a society from an insider’s point of view.

What are manifest and latent functions in sociology?

Manifest functions are the intended and anticipated consequences of social processes, while latent functions are the unintended consequences.

What is the basic premise of the Structural-Functional Approach?

The Structural-Functional Approach views society as composed of interrelated parts that function together to promote solidarity and stability.

What does the term 'anomie' refer to in Functionalist theory?

Anomie refers to a lack of collective conscience during societal transitions, leading to a breakdown of social norms

What are the three major sociological paradigms?

1. Structural Functionalism: Focuses on how societal parts function together.

2. Conflict Theory: Examines how inequalities contribute to social differences and power disparities.

3. Symbolic Interactionism: Centers on one-to-one interactions and the meanings derived from them.

What is Cultural Relativism?

Cultural Relativism is assessing a culture by its own standards rather than comparing it to another culture.

What is the Sick Role according to Parsons?

The Sick Role concept states that sick individuals have rights (exempt from duties) and obligations (to try to get well and cooperate with doctors).

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex is a biological concept referring to physical differences, while gender is a social concept associated with cultural characteristics of masculinity and femininity.

What is the purpose of the Code of Ethics in sociology?

he Code of Ethics stresses informed consent, participant safety, privacy, and the need to publicize funding sources to avoid conflicts of interest.

What role does globalization play in sociology?

Globalization connects societies through technology, economics, and immigration, impacting local cultures and making sociology essential for understanding our place in the world.

In what ways does culture shock affect individuals?

Culture shock can cause disorientation and stress when individuals encounter unfamiliar cultural practices, affecting their ability to adapt.

What is the significance of the looking-glass self in symbolic interactionism?

The looking-glass self concept emphasizes how individuals develop their self-concept based on how they perceive others view them.

What is the impact of family structure on socialization?

Different family structures can shape individuals' values, behaviors, and social skills, impacting their integration into society.

What is Structural Functionalism?

Structural Functionalism is a macro-level theory that views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.

What is Conflict Theory?

Conflict Theory is a macro-level theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change, focusing on issues like race, class, and gender.

What is Symbolic Interactionism?

Symbolic Interactionism is a micro-level theory that emphasizes the role of symbols and interactions in shaping social life, focusing on meaning derived from social interactions.

What is Feminist Theory?

Feminist Theory examines the unequal power relations between genders, emphasizing the need for social change to achieve gender equality.

What is Postmodernism in sociology?

Postmodernism challenges the idea of a single narrative or truth in society, focusing on the diverse experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups.

What is Social Constructionism?

Social Constructionism posits that our understanding of reality is constructed through social processes and interactions, influenced by cultural norms and values.

What is Labeling Theory?

Labeling Theory examines how the labels or classifications assigned to individuals can influence their self-identity and behavior, particularly regarding deviance.

What is Exchange Theory?

Exchange Theory views social interactions as transactions where individuals seek to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships.

What is Developmental Sociology?

Developmental Sociology studies the ways in which individuals and societal institutions evolve and change over time, focusing on developmental processes and implications.

What is Critical Race Theory?

Critical Race Theory explores the intersections of race, law, and power, analyzing how systemic racism affects societal structures and institutions.

Sociological Imagination

The ability to see the connection between individual experiences (personal troubles) and larger social influences (public issues).

Structural Functionalism

• A macro-level theoretical perspective that views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.

Social-Conflict Theory

• A macro-level perspective that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change

Symbolic Interactionism

A micro-level framework that focuses on how people interact in their everyday lives through shared symbols and meanings.

Verstehen

A German word meaning to understand "insider" meanings; researchers attempt to understand a social world from the subject's perspective.

Positivism

The scientific study of social patterns using empirical data and the scientific method, championed by Auguste Comte

Manifest Functions

The recognized, intended, and anticipated consequences of a social process or institution.

Latent Functions

• The unrecognized, unintended, or hidden consequences of a social process or institution.

Dysfunctions

• Social patterns or processes that have undesirable, disruptive consequences for the operation of society.

Cultural Lag

The gap in time that occurs when material culture (technology) changes faster than nonmaterial culture (beliefs and values).

Ethnocentrism

The practice of judging and evaluating another culture based on the standards and values of one's own culture.

Cultural Relativism

The practice of assessing and understanding a culture by its own standards, rather than judging it through an outside lens.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The theory that the structure of a language determines or shapes the way its speakers perceive and think about the world.

Anomie

A state of normlessness or social instability caused by the breakdown of traditional rules, values, and standard behaviors.

Looking-Glass Self

Charles Horton Cooley’s concept that our self-image is built based on how we think other people perceive us.

Role Conflict

A situation where an individual experiences incompatible demands between two or more different social roles.

Role Strain

Stress or incompatible demands experienced within a single, specific social role.Stress or incompatible demands experienced within a single, specific social role.

Thomas Theorey

The sociological principle stating that if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences

Labeling Theory

The theory that deviance is determined not by the act itself, but by the reactions of others who apply labels to the individual.

Primary Deviance

A violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual's self-image or social interactions.

Secondary Deviance

Deviance that occurs after a person is labeled, causing them to internalize the label and alter their self-concept to match it.

Differential Association Theory

• Edwin Sutherland’s theory that individuals learn criminal and deviant behaviors through close socialization with others who model those behaviors.

Prejudice

An irrational, rigid, and preconceived attitude or belief about an individual based solely on their group membership.

Discrimination

The actual unequal, unfair treatment or negative actions directed toward a group of people.

Institutional Racism

Systemic patterns of racial discrimination that are deeply embedded into the structures, laws, and practices of societal institutions.

Gender Stratification

The unequal distribution of wealth, power, opportunity, and social privilege between men and women.

Gender Identity

A person's deeply felt internal perception of their own gender, which may or may not align with their biological sex.

Heterosexism

An ideological and institutional practice that privileges heterosexual relationships over all other sexual orientations.

Second Shift

A concept describing the unpaid domestic labor and childcare that working parents (disproportionately women) perform at home after their paid jobs.

Bilateral Descent

A system of tracing kinship and ancestral inheritance through both the mother's and father's sides of the family.

The Power Elite

C. Wright Mills' term for a small group of corporate, military, and political leaders who hold a disproportionate amount of control over society