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biological approach
focuses on physiology, including genetics
cognitive approach
focuses on mental processes like memory, thinking, perception, and attention
sociocultural approach
focuses on how environment and culture affect behavior.
TEAM - Testable
Can we falsify the theory? Is it possible to test its validity?
TEAM - Empirical Evidence
Is there evidence to support or challenge the theory? What is the quality of the evidence?
TEAM - Application
Can the theory be applied to solve problems or explain different behaviors?
TEAM - Measurable
To what extent can we reliably measure the concepts relevant to the theory?
Fixed Mindset
Believes intelligence is static (cannot change). Because they want to appear smart, they avoid challenges, give up easily, and consider the effort a waste of time.
Growth Mindset
Believes that intelligence is not fixed; they think it can be developed and therefore do not mind challenges.
Improved Personal Well-being
Understanding psychological principles can help you manage stress, improve mental health, and develop better coping strategies.
Enhanced Relationships
Psychological literacy enables people to understand themselves and others better, fostering empathy, effective communication, and stronger interpersonal relationships.
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
Psychological literacy involves critical thinking skills that are essential for analyzing information, evaluating evidence, and solving problems effectively.
Ethical Practice
Understanding ethical principles in psychology promotes ethical behavior and decision-making. It helps individuals recognize and address ethical dilemmas in their personal and professional lives.
Cultural Competence
Psychological literacy includes an appreciation of cultural diversity and the ability to apply psychological principles in a culturally sensitive manner. This is crucial in today’s globalized world, where cultural competence is necessary for effective interaction and collaboration.
Societal Benefits
A society with a high level of psychological literacy is better equipped to address social issues such as mental health stigma, discrimination, and conflict. It contributes to the development of policies and interventions that promote public well-being.
Bias
Systematic errors in thinking, research, and practice that can affect the validity and reliability of psychological findings.
Participant Biases
The tendency of participants in a study to consciously or subconsciously act in a way that they think the experimenter or researcher wants them to act.
The expectancy effect
occurs when a researcher’s expectations are inadvertently conveyed to participants and influence their responses.
Social desirability bias
the tendency of participants to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.
Researcher bias
occurs when the researcher's beliefs or expectations influence the research design, data collection, or interpretation of the findings.
Confirmation bias
The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.
Interviewer bias
Is introduced by the interviewer's behavior, such as leading a participant to respond in a certain way through tone or body language.
Sampling (selection) bias
occurs when the sample studied is not representative of the population intended to be analyzed.
Attrition bias
introduced when participants drop out of a study over time in a non-random manner.
Cultural bias
the tendency to judge phenomena through the lens of one's own culture, potentially leading to a misinterpretation of behaviors and attitudes.
Ecological fallacy
the assumption that because someone is a member of a cultural group, they share all the traits of the culture. For example, assuming that a Korean has a high power distance.
Gender bias
the tendency to judge phenomena through the lens of gender, potentially leading to a misinterpretation of behaviors and attitudes.
Alpha bias
refers to the exaggeration of the differences between men and women. Alpha bias emphasizes the stereotypical differences between men and women.
Beta bias
Is the opposite of alpha bias, often minimising differences between the sexes.
Publication bias
the tendency for journals to publish positive findings rather than null or negative results
P-hacking
a term for various techniques that researchers can use to increase the chances of finding statistically significant results in their studies, even if the results are not actually meaningful.
Recall bias
occurs when participants in a research study do not accurately remember a past event or experience or leave out details.
Optimism bias
when you believe that your behavior is better than it is and that you are at a lower risk of health problems than others.
The peak-end rule
a cognitive bias where people judge an experience largely based on how they felt at its peak and at its end rather than based on the total sum or average of every moment of the experience.
Why might it be misleading to state that "correlation is not causation"?
Because causality is a complex concept and correlation can be a hint
Linear causality
A direct cause-and-effect relationship where the independent variable directly affects the dependent variable under controlled conditions.
A domino effect,
causes a sequential unfolding of effects over time
Cyclical causality
involves feedback loops where the effect of a cause leads back to the original cause, creating a cycle.
People with an internal locus of control believe
that their actions and decisions directly impact their life's outcomes.
agency
refers to the capacity of individuals to act independently, make choices, and exert control over their actions and decisions.
Soft determinism
holds that human behavior is influenced by both deterministic factors (biological and environmental) and free will.
objective measurement
based on observable, verifiable facts, using standardized methods or tools that ensure consistency and reliability.
Quantitative measurement
refers to using numerical data and statistical methods to study behavior and cognition
Qualitative measurement
involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data to understand behavior and cognition in a more detailed and subjective way
Triangulation
using multiple datasets, methods, theories, and/or researchers to address a research question.
Method triangulation
Using multiple research methods or techniques to investigate the same phenomenon.
Data triangulation
Using multiple sources of data to study a single phenomenon.
Researcher triangulation
Multiple researchers or investigators independently analyze the data and compare their interpretations.
What is the primary characteristic of objective data?
Free from personal biases and subjective interpretation
Anecdotal data
information based on personal stories, individual experiences, or isolated observations. subjective.
Empirical data
refers to information obtained through systematic observation or experimentation.
What distinguishes interpretivism from positivism?
Positivism emphasizes objectivity.
Interpretivism
a philosophical approach that emphasizes understanding human behavior from the subjective perspective of individuals. inductive approach.
inductive approach
begins with a set of empirical observations, seeks patterns in those observations, and then develops a hypothesis about those patterns.
Positivism
advocates for the application of the scientific method to study behavior. It emphasizes objective observation, measurement, and quantitative data. deductive approach.
deductive approach
begins with a theory, develops hypotheses from that theory, and then collects and analyzes data to test those hypotheses.
True experiments
the only way to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables.
independent variable (IV)
the variable that causes a change in the other variable
dependent variable (DV)
The variable that is measured after manipulating the independent variable
null hypothesis
states that the IV will not affect the DV or that any change will be due to chance
one-tailed hypothesis
predicts that the effect will go in a specific direction
two-tailed hypothesis
doesn’t specify the direction of the effect
experimental hypothesis
predicts the relationship between the IV and the DV - that is, what we expect will come from manipulating the independent variable
internal validity
the level to which we are confident that the independent variable affected the dependent variable
repeated measures design
one sample of participants receives each condition of an experiment.
independent samples design
participants are randomly allocated to one condition of the experiment
quasi-experiment
a research design that aims to evaluate the effect of an independent variable but lacks random assignment to conditions.
external validity
relates to how applicable the findings are in the real world
The expectancy effect
when participants act a certain way because they want to do what the researcher asks
screw-you effect
occurs when a participant attempts to figure out the researcher's hypotheses to destroy the study's credibility.
social desirability effect.
when participants react in a certain way because they feel that this is the "socially acceptable" thing to do - and they know that they are being observed.
reactivity
sometimes, participants simply act differently because they are being observed
Researcher bias
occurs when the experimenter sees what he or she is looking for
confirmation bias
when a researcher interprets information in a way that confirms a preexisting belief or hypothesis.
overt observation
participants know they are being observed.
covert observation
participants are unaware they are being studied, so they have not consented
Strengths of Naturalistic observations
Have high ecological validity. In contrast to laboratory research, data is collected in the participants' natural environment; it is assumed that the participants behave as they usually do.
Observing behavior in its natural setting can lead to new insights and hypotheses that researchers may not have considered.
Limitations of Naturalistic Observations
Researchers cannot control for external variables.
Since the environment and circumstances of naturalistic observations are often unique, it is hard to replicate the study.
Since researchers cannot manipulate or control the environment, they may be limited in what they can study.
Strengths of Interviews
can provide a rich and detailed understanding of psychological phenomena.
Interviews can allow for exploring unexpected issues or insights during the conversation.
The interactive nature helps to build trust and allows for clarification.
Limitations of Interviews
responses may be influenced by memory biases, social desirability, or personal interpretation.
Interviews are time-consuming, especially in large-scale research studies.
The way questions are asked or the non-verbal cues given by the interviewer can influence responses.
Structured interviews
follow an interview guide, a strict set of predetermined questions in a specific order, which ensures consistency across all participants.
Semi-structured Interviews
offer a balance between structure and flexibility. While there is a guide of topics and questions, the interviewer can probe further into certain areas depending on the interviewee’s responses.
Credibility in qualitative research
refers to the degree to which a study's findings, conclusions, and interpretations can be trusted.
Theory triangulation
involves examining the data using different theoretical approaches, such as biological, psychological, and sociocultural approaches.
Protection from undue stress or harm
is the responsibility of researchers to prevent participants from experiencing excessive physical, emotional, or psychological stress or harm as a result of their involvement in a study.
informed consent
Participants must be told about the nature of the study and agree to participate. They must also be told their rights, including the right to withdraw from the study at any time. Informed consent also means that the participant must understand what the research is about and any potential issues that may arise.
Anonymity
means that no information about participants is collected or stored in a way that links them to their data.
Confidentiality
means that the researchers collect identifying information but protect it and do not disclose it to unauthorized individuals or entities.
deception by omission
researchers do not tell the participant the complete aim of the study, or they leave out other information that may negatively influence the study's outcome
deception by commission
researchers provide misinformation about the study