Comprehensive U.S. Foreign Policy: Terrorism, International Organizations, Democracy, and Climate

What is terrorism?

The use or threatened use of violence against non-combatants in pursuit of a political aim.

What is the terrorist's dilemma?

Coordination and communication by terrorist groups can make them vulnerable to detection, leading to poor choices that negatively affect their goals.

What are the main target countries of terrorist attacks?

Syria, Pakistan, Nigeria, Iraq, Afghanistan.

What is demonstrative terrorism?

Attacks used to gain attention in order to recruit followers and gain support from moderates.

What are the strategic uses of political violence by terrorist organizations?

Provocation, spoiling peace negotiations, and outbidding for followers.

What is provocation in the context of terrorism?

Prompting an overreaction, such as al-Qaeda's 9/11 attack on the U.S.

What is spoiling in terrorism?

Undermining peace negotiations, as seen with Hamas attacks to disrupt Israeli-Palestinian talks.

What is outbidding in terrorism?

Using violence to compete for followers, exemplified by ISIS competing against al-Qaeda.

What is the dilemma of counterterrorism?

Balancing security and personal freedom.

What are defensive measures in counterterrorism?

Intelligence, surveillance, and law enforcement aimed at capturing and prosecuting terrorists.

Why are terrorist organizations hard to deter?

They lack a home address for retaliatory attacks and can easily replace targeted leaders.

What are the tradeoffs of targeting terrorist leaders with drone strikes?

Drone strikes can destroy cells without direct conflict but may produce collateral damage and replace leaders with more radical ones.

How did the attack on 9/11 lead to the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan?

Bush considered war immediately, not distinguishing between terrorists and states harboring them, pressuring states like Pakistan to choose sides.

What led to the war in Iraq after 9/11?

Pressure within the administration to address Iraq due to concerns over weapons of mass destruction and ties to terrorism.

What are the tradeoffs associated with using external military force abroad?

Lack of understanding of local conflicts, power vacuums, increased casualties, and damage to U.S. international reputation.

What are institutions in politics?

Rules that structure incentives and behavior, such as the U.S. Constitution.

What is the difference between institutions and organizations?

Institutions are rules, while organizations are actors that can contain institutions.

How do international institutions shape international politics?

By guiding behavior, providing information, and allocating power among states.

What role does the WTO play in international trade?

It regulates trade liberalization and can enforce compliance among member states.

How does U.S. membership in international organizations demonstrate the balance of power?

Organizations like the UN and NATO help promote U.S. interests while constraining its power through multilateral cooperation.

What are the tradeoffs associated with participation in international organizations?

Delegation of authority can limit domestic authority; for example, the WTO can influence U.S. trade policies.

What are the two main political bodies of the UN?

The General Assembly and the Security Council.

How does the General Assembly confer legitimacy?

It includes all member states, providing a powerful political vehicle for securing international legitimacy.

Who are the five permanent members of the UN Security Council?

United States, United Kingdom, China, Russia, and France.

Why does the United States participate in the United Nations?

To gain legitimacy for controversial policies and reflect global public opinion.

What is interstate cooperation?

It occurs when states subordinate their sovereignty to establish rules governing conduct for mutual benefit.

What is the collective action problem?

When everyone agrees on a common goal but no one is willing to pay the costs to achieve it.

What is the free rider problem?

Many actors prefer to avoid the costs of reaching a cooperative settlement.

What are externalities in the context of global governance?

Costs or benefits that affect parties not directly involved in an interaction.

What challenges do international organizations face in compliance and enforcement?

Countries may cheat, avoid punishment, and enforcement is often diffused among members.

What are the Cold War origins of NATO?

NATO was formed to protect Europe from the Soviet threat and bind American military power.

What did Lord Ismay mean by NATO's goal to 'keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down'?

To spread democracy, ensure European security, and maintain peace among democratic powers.

What are the two main dilemmas facing NATO?

European shirking of security responsibilities and the U.S. as a reluctant hegemon.

How has the Trump administration addressed NATO's dilemmas?

By demanding European countries increase defense spending and questioning NATO's relevance.

What are Robert Dahl's three 'procedural minimal' conditions of democracy?

Public Contestation, Inclusion, and Democratic Sovereignty.

What is the significance of the Voting Rights Act of 1965?

It enforces racial equality at the polls.

How has universal suffrage affected election outcomes?

It broadens participation and allows for a punishment mechanism for elected officials.

What are the five stages of expansion of voting rights in the U.S.?

Expansion of white male suffrage, 15th Amendment, 19th Amendment, Voting Rights Act, 26th Amendment.

How do restrictions on voting rights affect American democracy?

They limit public participation and can skew representation in government.

What impact has expanded voting rights had on descriptive representation?

It has increased representation of women and ethnic minorities in politics.

How does democracy create a punishment mechanism?

Voters can choose to elect different representatives if their current ones fail to fulfill pledges.

What role does democracy play in balancing society?

It brings out various institutional views and encourages public participation.

How does democracy affect foreign policy?

Democracy expands the range of societal interests represented in foreign policy and creates a punishment mechanism that pressures governments to implement policies favored by a majority of voters.

What is the democratic peace theory?

It suggests that domestic democratic institutions promote peaceful relations among fellow democracies through institutional and normative mechanisms.

What factors contribute to democracy's influence over foreign policy?

Electoral constraints, institutional checks and balances, and a shared democratic identity help explain peaceful relations between democracies.

What are some critiques of the democratic peace theory?

States undergoing democratic transitions experience more conflict; common enemies and great power settlements explain peace in Western Europe after WWII.

How has Democracy Promotion been important in U.S. foreign policy?

It has justified American efforts to expand democracy, leading to more partners for cooperation, trade, and peace.

What efforts has the United States made to promote democracy globally?

Wilson leveraged WWI for democracy expansion; post-WWII efforts in Germany and Japan; Clinton intervened in Yugoslavia; Bush promoted democracy in the Middle East.

What are the drawbacks of U.S. democracy promotion?

It can cause distrust, lead to bad reputations due to interventions, incur high costs, and infringe on the sovereignty of other nations.

What are the historical waves of democracy?

1st wave: 19th century to WWI; 2nd wave: post-WWII; 3rd wave: 1970s democratization in Europe and Latin America.

What are demonstration effects in the context of democracy?

Significant mass events that successfully challenge autocratic regimes inspire similar actions in other countries.

What are neighborhood effects regarding democracy?

States tend to emulate the level of democracy of their neighboring states, influencing regional democracy emergence.

How did hegemons influence democracy during the Cold War?

The actions of the U.S. and the Soviet Union were instrumental in the spread or suppression of democracy.

What are the two main tendencies within U.S. foreign policy regarding democracy promotion?

Promoting democracy while dealing with authoritarian regimes and balancing national interests.

What third option does Krasner propose for dealing with long-standing dictatorships?

Krasner suggests a pragmatic approach that recognizes the complexities of authoritarian regimes while promoting stability.

What third option does Krasner propose for dealing with dictatorships?

Transforming dictatorships into liberal democracies or demonstrating the virtues of democracy by example.

What are the chief indicators of increased globalization since World War II?

More supranational organizations like the UN and NATO, and a global trade network.

What is comparative advantage?

Specializing in goods that a country produces most efficiently relative to others.

How does comparative advantage contribute to economic gains from trade?

It encourages specialization in sectors with the greatest efficiency.

What is the Ricardian model of trade?

It suggests that countries gain from trade by specializing in goods where they have the greatest efficiency.

Why is there political resistance to globalization?

The benefits of globalization are not evenly distributed, leading to winners and losers.

Who are the winners and losers from globalization in the U.S.?

Winners: high tech jobs and college graduates; Losers: U.S. manufacturing sector.

What does the Heckscher-Ohlin model of trade demonstrate?

It shows how trade alters income distribution within countries based on resource abundance.

How do trade and globalization shape political relations?

They promote an interconnected world with free transfer of capital, goods, and services.

What is a tariff?

A tax imposed on foreign products when they enter an economy.

Who pays a tariff?

Domestic consumers, importing businesses, and foreign exporters.

What are the consequences of tariffs?

They increase costs of imported goods, raise government revenue, and shield domestic producers.

How do tariffs affect domestic income distribution?

They lead to higher retail prices and squeezed profit margins for importing businesses.

Why did the U.S. launch trade wars against China during Trump's presidency?

To address China's unfair trading practices and protect U.S. manufacturing jobs.

What were some important stages in the U.S.-China trade war?

Repeated tariff increases and a phase one trade deal that failed due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

What does globalization in financial terms look like?

The free flow of capital and goods across international borders.

What is an exchange rate?

The price of one currency in terms of another.

How do shifts in exchange rates influence trade?

They alter the price of imports and exports, affecting trade patterns.

What happens when the dollar appreciates?

It can buy more foreign currency, making imports cheaper.

What happens when the dollar depreciates?

It buys fewer foreign currency units, increasing import costs.

How can exchange rate changes influence trade policy?

Exchange rates reflect differences in currency values; as the dollar appreciates, it can buy more foreign currency, leading to increased imports.

What is the Mundell-Fleming Trilemma?

It describes the tension between monetary policy autonomy, exchange rate stability, and capital mobility, stating that governments cannot simultaneously possess all three.

What is a trade deficit?

A trade deficit occurs when a country imports more than it exports.

How are trade deficits related to foreign capital inflows?

When a country runs a current account deficit, it must compensate by running a capital account surplus, borrowing more than it lends.

What is the political significance of the dollar's reserve currency status?

The dollar is used in international transactions, providing stability and reducing consequences for U.S. financial decisions.

How can global capital markets influence government economic policy?

Loss of confidence from foreign capital holders can lead to asset sales, constraining monetary policy and forcing economic downturns.

What emergency actions did the Federal Reserve take during the COVID-19 pandemic?

The Fed extended credit to businesses and governments, lowered interest rates, and engaged in quantitative easing.

How does the U.S. dollar's reserve currency status help the Federal Reserve during crises?

It allows the Fed to exchange dollars with central banks to maintain stability and support economic recovery.

What do the Fed's actions indicate about American hegemony in the global economy?

The U.S. provides public goods like the dollar as a reserve currency, supporting global economic stability.

What is the Bretton Woods economic order?

A framework established by 44 nations to manage economic cooperation post-WWII, leading to the creation of the IMF and World Bank.

What are the main elements of international economic cooperation?

They include tariff reduction, monetary policy coordination, foreign aid, and emergency financial lending.

Why is political cooperation on international economic affairs difficult?

Challenges include mutual defection fears, uncertainty about interests, and difficulties in monitoring compliance.

How do international economic organizations facilitate cooperation?

They provide communication channels, impose rules, and advocate for cooperation benefits.

What is the GATT and how does it differ from the WTO?

The GATT aimed to reduce trade barriers, while the WTO ensures compliance with trade agreements and has a dispute settlement mechanism.

What principles guide the GATT/WTO system?

The principles include nondiscrimination and reciprocity among member countries.

What is the International Monetary Fund (IMF)?

The IMF acts like a bank, overseeing a pool of capital from member countries to manage monetary commitments and provide liquidity to prevent defaults.

What are the main functions of the IMF?

To manage monetary commitments under the Bretton Woods system and serve as a lender of last resort.

What is conditionality in the context of the IMF?

Conditionality refers to the set of austerity measures that borrowing countries must commit to in order to access IMF funds.

Why does the U.S. have significant influence within the IMF?

The U.S. maintains the largest quota in the IMF, which affects its voting power on the Executive Board.

What is the basic scientific claim about the causes of climate change?

Carbon dioxide is a heat-trapping gas, with levels rising significantly since the industrial revolution.

What are the predicted consequences of climate change?

Extreme weather events, harm to agriculture, threats to water supplies, and rising ocean levels endangering coastal communities.

Which regions are likely to be most affected by climate change?

Tropical regions near the equator and poorer countries will experience the most severe local impacts.

What is the tragedy of the commons?

It describes the overuse of public goods due to individuals not bearing the full social costs of their consumption.

What is an externality?

An externality is a spillover cost borne by actors not directly involved in a process.

What are the three distributional struggles related to climate change?

1. Government policies affecting competitiveness. 2. Fairness in emission reduction burdens. 3. Political implications of allocating pollution rights.