Psychology Learning & Memory (Unit 3 AOS 2)

stimulus

any object or event that elicits (produces) a response from an organism

response

a reaction by an organism to a stimulus

classical conditioning

a type of learning that occurs through the repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli

three phases of classical conditioning

before conditioning, during conditioning, after conditioning

UCS

unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

is any stimulus that consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, automatic response

UCR

unconditioned response

unconditioned response

a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

NS

neutral stimulus

neutral stimulus

is any stimulus that does not normally produce a predictable response

CS

conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus

is the stimulus that is 'neutral' at the start of the conditioning process but eventually triggers a very similar response to that caused by the UCS

CR

conditioned response

conditioned response

the learned response that is produced by the CS

before conditioning

The NS of ___ did not produce any response.

The UCR of ___ was elicited by the UCS of ___

during conditioning

The NS of ___ was paired with the UCS of __

after conditioning

The NS of ___ became the CS.

The CS of ___ now elicits the CR of ___.

trial

each paired presentation of the NS with the UCS

acquisition

the overall process during which an organisms learns to associate the NS and the UCS until the NS alone has become a CS that produces the CR

timing of the NS and UCS pairing

the NS should be presented before the UCS and there should be very short time between their presentations

operant conditioning

a type of learning where the consequences of behaviour determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future

Three phases of operant conditioning

Antecedent, Behaviour, Consequence

antecedent

the stimulus (object or event) that precedes a specific behaviour

behaviour

the voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the antecedent stimulus

consequence

environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviour and has an effect on the occurrence of the behaviour

reinforcement

when a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that it follows

positive reinforcement

addition of a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of behaviour occurring again

negative reinforcement

removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of behaviour occurring again

punishment

when a stimulus weakens the frequency or likelihood of behaviour occurring again

positive punishment

addition of an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the likelihood of behaviour occurring again

negative punishment

removal of a pleasant stimulus to reduce the likelihood of behaviour occurring again

other names for observational learning

modelling or social learning

observational learning

occurs when someone uses observation of a model's actions and the consequences of their actions to guide their future actions

model

who/what is being observed

symbolic model

real or fictional character portrayed in the media that influences an observer's behaviour

vicarious conditioning

individual watches a model's behaviour either being reinforced or punished, and then is more likely or less likely to behave that way themselves

Stages of observational learning

attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement

attention

In order to learn through observation, we must be paying attention to or closely watch a model's behaviour and the consequences

retention

must remember the model's behaviour and store the information in our memory to be used later

reproduction

We must have the ability to be able to produce the behaviour that we have observed

motivation

We have to be motivated to complete behaviour, or we will not

reinforcement

Unless the behaviour is useful or is reinforced, we are unlikely to imitate it

cognitive representation

when observers pay attention to something going on around them, they form mental images or codes of what they observe, but do not have to reproduce it to have learnt it

3 levels of indigenous communities

global, national, local

8 Ways Framework

a framework for using Indigenous learning techniques

memory

the processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning

3 step process of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

encoding

Conversion of information into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented ('placed') and stored in memory

storage

Retention of the encoded information over time

retrieval

Recovery of stored information and bringing into conscious awareness for use when needed

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

represents memory as consisting of three separate stores called sensory memory, short-term memory and long term memory

function of sensory memory

entry point of memory where new information is stored for a very brief period

duration of sensory memory

0.3 to 4 seconds (occasionally up to 10 seconds)

capacity of sensory memory

unlimited

if sensory information is attended to

transferred to short term memory

if sensory information not attended to

lost forever

sensory memory is divided into

iconic and echoic memory

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than 1/3 of a second

echoic memory

brief sensory memory for incoming auditory information, usually retain information for 3-4 seconds

why is it called echoic memory?

sounds linger in it like an echo

function of short term memory

Information received into short-term memory is processed (encoded) and stored for a brief period, unless a conscious effort is made to keep it there longer

short term memory is also called

working memory

duration of short term memory

18 - 30 seconds

capacity of short term memory

5 - 9 items

displacement

when short-term memory is 'full', new items can only enter through pushing one item out

short-term memory as working memory

STM enables us to actively 'work on' information. Information from sensory memory is processed in working memory and information is retrieved from LTM to be used and manipulated in working memory

function of long term memory

responsible for the storage of information for an extended period of time

duration of long term memory

relatively permanent

capacity of long term memory

unlimited (ltm)

long term memory can be divided into

explicit and implicit memory

explicit memory can be divided into

semantic and episodic memory

implicit memory can be divided into

procedural and classically conditioned memory

explicit memory

involves memory that occurs when information can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated

explicit memory is also called

declarative memory

episodic memory

memory of personally experienced events

semantic memory

memory of facts and knowledge about the world

implicit memory

Memory that does not require conscious or intentional retrieval

procedural memory

memory of motor skills and actions that have been learned previously

classically conditioned memories

Conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning

role of neocortex in memory

long term explicit semantic and episodic memories are widely distributed throughout the cortex

roles of hippocampus in memory

consolidation of explicit memories, linking components of memory together, spatial memory, works with amygdala in formation of explicit component of emotional event

role of amygdala in memory

formation of emotional memories, classically conditioned fear responses

role of cerebellum in memory

storage of implicit procedural memories and motor skill memories and classically conditioned simple reflexes

role of basal ganglia in memory

facilitates formation of our procedural memory skills, habituation, consolidates procedural

if amygdala is removed

emotional portions of memories are damaged, and conditioned fear responses are affected

if parts of neocortex is removed

explicit memories are affected

if cerebellum is removed

affects our memory of classically conditioned responses

Alzheimer's disease

type of dementia characterised by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline, deterioration of cognitive and social skills and personality changes

brain of someone with Alzheimer's contains

plaques and tangles

amyloid plaques

fragments of the protein beta amyloid, form insoluble clumps outside and around neurons, therefore inhibiting communication

neurofibrillary tangles

look like twisted fibres, and inhibit transport of essential substances through the neurons

forgetting

inability to access or recover information previously stored in memory

retrieval cue

acts as a prompt or hint that guides the search and recovery of information

rehearsal

process of consciously manipulating information to keep it in STM, to transfer it to LTM, or to aid storage and retrieval

types of rehearsal

maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal

maintenance rehearsal

involves repeating the information being remembered over and over again so that it can be retained

elaborative rehearsal

process of linking new information in a meaningful way with other new info or info already stored in LTM to aid its storage and later retrieval from LTM

autobiographical memory

the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story, a mix of semantic and episodic memory

Reconstruction of memory

Re-creating a memory using all accessible information in long term memory.

imagined futures

we rearrange our memories of the past to put together a vision of what the future might look like