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54 Terms

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Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism.

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Phenotype

The physical and physiological traits expressed by the genotype.

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Nucleotides

The building blocks of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).

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Central Dogma of molecular biology

DNA → RNA → Protein.

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DNA replication

The DNA is unwound, copied, and rewound to form new strands before cell division.

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Transcription

RNA is synthesized from a DNA template (initiation, elongation, termination).

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Translation

mRNA is translated into a protein by ribosomes (initiation, elongation, termination).

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Mutations

Changes in genetic material that cause variation and drive evolution.

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Thymine dimers

UV radiation causes adjacent thymine bases to bond, distorting DNA.

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Horizontal gene transfer

Transfer of genes between cells without cell division; includes conjugation, transformation.

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Lac operon

An inducible operon activated only when lactose is present and glucose is absent.

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Restriction enzymes

Proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences to create sticky ends for cloning.

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CRISPR

Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats — bacterial immune system.

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Metabolism

All chemical reactions in a cell, including catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (biosynthesis).

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Enzymes

Protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions.

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NAD+ and FAD

Electron carriers that become NADH and FADH2 during redox reactions.

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Redox reactions

Coupled oxidation-reduction reactions that transfer electrons between molecules.

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Glycolysis

Occurs in the cytoplasm; produces 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate.

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Krebs cycle

Produces 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, and 6 NADH with CO2 released.

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Electron transport chain

Electrons pass through carriers, generating ATP via oxidative phosphorylation (36 ATP in eukaryotes).

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Epidemiology

The study and control of disease occurrence to promote public health.

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Endemic disease

A disease routinely found in a population (e.g., common cold).

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Sporadic disease

A disease that occurs infrequently in a population (e.g., Ebola).

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Pandemic

An epidemic that spreads to multiple countries or continents.

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Zoonotic disease

A disease transmitted from animals to humans.

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Reservoir

A host or environment in which a pathogen can live and multiply.

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Natural habitat

The natural habitat where a pathogen normally lives and multiplies.

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Infectious dose (ID50)

The number of microbes required to infect 50% of exposed hosts.

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Sign vs. symptom

Sign: measurable indicator. Symptom: felt by the patient.

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Exogenous infections

Pathogens acquired from an external source.

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Endogenous infections

Pathogens that originate from the host's normal microbiota.

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Mechanical disease vector

A vector that spreads pathogens without being part of the pathogen's life cycle.

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Healthcare-acquired infection (HAI)

An infection acquired in a hospital or healthcare setting.

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Host-microbe interaction

The dynamic relationship between normal microbiota and pathogens.

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Dysbiosis

Disruption of the normal microbiota balance.

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Tropism

A pathogen's preference for a specific host or tissue type.

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Virulence factors

Traits that enhance a pathogen's ability to cause disease.

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Exotoxins

Toxic proteins secreted by Gram+ and Gram- bacteria (neurotoxins, enterotoxins, etc.).

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Endotoxins

Lipid A portion of LPS in Gram- bacteria; released when cells die.

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Superantigens

Toxins from Staphylococcus or Streptococcus that overstimulate the immune system.

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Pyrogens

Bacterial substances that trigger fever when in the bloodstream.

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Capsule's function

Protects bacteria from phagocytosis.

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Antigen masking

Pathogens coat themselves with host molecules to hide from the immune system.

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Antibody breakdown

Pathogens destroy antibodies to suppress immune defenses.

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Cytopathic effects

Observable structural changes in host cells due to viral infection.

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Portals of entry

Sites where pathogens enter the host.

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Portals of exit

Routes pathogens use to leave the host.

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Fomites

Inanimate objects that can transmit pathogens.

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Vaccine

A preparation that stimulates immune memory against a pathogen.

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Main vaccine types

Active, inactivated, and recombinant vector vaccines.

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Herd immunity

Protection of unvaccinated individuals when a large portion of the population is immune.

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Steps of recombinant DNA technology

  1. Copy gene by PCR, 2. Cut gene and plasmid with restriction enzymes, 3. Join with ligase.
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Genome mapping

To identify how microbes cause disease and track genes.

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CRISPR technology

A gene-editing system derived from bacterial defense mechanisms.