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Genotype
The genetic makeup of an organism.
Phenotype
The physical and physiological traits expressed by the genotype.
Nucleotides
The building blocks of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA).
Central Dogma of molecular biology
DNA → RNA → Protein.
DNA replication
The DNA is unwound, copied, and rewound to form new strands before cell division.
Transcription
RNA is synthesized from a DNA template (initiation, elongation, termination).
Translation
mRNA is translated into a protein by ribosomes (initiation, elongation, termination).
Mutations
Changes in genetic material that cause variation and drive evolution.
Thymine dimers
UV radiation causes adjacent thymine bases to bond, distorting DNA.
Horizontal gene transfer
Transfer of genes between cells without cell division; includes conjugation, transformation.
Lac operon
An inducible operon activated only when lactose is present and glucose is absent.
Restriction enzymes
Proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences to create sticky ends for cloning.
CRISPR
Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats — bacterial immune system.
Metabolism
All chemical reactions in a cell, including catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (biosynthesis).
Enzymes
Protein catalysts that speed up chemical reactions.
NAD+ and FAD
Electron carriers that become NADH and FADH2 during redox reactions.
Redox reactions
Coupled oxidation-reduction reactions that transfer electrons between molecules.
Glycolysis
Occurs in the cytoplasm; produces 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate.
Krebs cycle
Produces 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, and 6 NADH with CO2 released.
Electron transport chain
Electrons pass through carriers, generating ATP via oxidative phosphorylation (36 ATP in eukaryotes).
Epidemiology
The study and control of disease occurrence to promote public health.
Endemic disease
A disease routinely found in a population (e.g., common cold).
Sporadic disease
A disease that occurs infrequently in a population (e.g., Ebola).
Pandemic
An epidemic that spreads to multiple countries or continents.
Zoonotic disease
A disease transmitted from animals to humans.
Reservoir
A host or environment in which a pathogen can live and multiply.
Natural habitat
The natural habitat where a pathogen normally lives and multiplies.
Infectious dose (ID50)
The number of microbes required to infect 50% of exposed hosts.
Sign vs. symptom
Sign: measurable indicator. Symptom: felt by the patient.
Exogenous infections
Pathogens acquired from an external source.
Endogenous infections
Pathogens that originate from the host's normal microbiota.
Mechanical disease vector
A vector that spreads pathogens without being part of the pathogen's life cycle.
Healthcare-acquired infection (HAI)
An infection acquired in a hospital or healthcare setting.
Host-microbe interaction
The dynamic relationship between normal microbiota and pathogens.
Dysbiosis
Disruption of the normal microbiota balance.
Tropism
A pathogen's preference for a specific host or tissue type.
Virulence factors
Traits that enhance a pathogen's ability to cause disease.
Exotoxins
Toxic proteins secreted by Gram+ and Gram- bacteria (neurotoxins, enterotoxins, etc.).
Endotoxins
Lipid A portion of LPS in Gram- bacteria; released when cells die.
Superantigens
Toxins from Staphylococcus or Streptococcus that overstimulate the immune system.
Pyrogens
Bacterial substances that trigger fever when in the bloodstream.
Capsule's function
Protects bacteria from phagocytosis.
Antigen masking
Pathogens coat themselves with host molecules to hide from the immune system.
Antibody breakdown
Pathogens destroy antibodies to suppress immune defenses.
Cytopathic effects
Observable structural changes in host cells due to viral infection.
Portals of entry
Sites where pathogens enter the host.
Portals of exit
Routes pathogens use to leave the host.
Fomites
Inanimate objects that can transmit pathogens.
Vaccine
A preparation that stimulates immune memory against a pathogen.
Main vaccine types
Active, inactivated, and recombinant vector vaccines.
Herd immunity
Protection of unvaccinated individuals when a large portion of the population is immune.
Steps of recombinant DNA technology
Genome mapping
To identify how microbes cause disease and track genes.
CRISPR technology
A gene-editing system derived from bacterial defense mechanisms.