Language and Introduction to Thinking and Problem Solving

Concepts

a mental grouping that is more general than a schema

Prototypes

a mental image or “best representation” of a category or concept in an idealized form (EX

Schema

used to recognize and develop an understanding of otherwise complex objects and ideas, from recognizing people, animals, and objects in our immediate environment

Assimilation

cognitive process of incorporating new information into existing mental frameworks, or schemas, without changing the schema itself

Accommodation

the cognitive process of modifying existing mental frameworks (schemas) to incorporate new information that does not fit the current understanding

Algorithms

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Heuristics

a single thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently and usually speedier, however MORE error prone

Insight

sudden realization of a solution (“AHA” moment)

Confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype (EX

Availability heuristic

tendency to be biased by information that is easier to recall, by being swayed by information that is vivid, well-publicized, or recent

Overconfidence

tendency to be more confident than correct, meaning people overestimate their knowledge, abilities, and the accuracy of their judgements

Belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited (EX

Fixation

inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

Mental set

tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past (a way to accomplish something)

Priming

exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, often without conscious awareness

Framing/effect

the way an issue is posed/ how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

Gambler’s fallacy

the mistaken belief that past independent events can influence the probability of future, unrelated events (OR vice versa), despite the fact that each event is independent

Sunk-cost fallacy

cognitive bias where an individual continues an endeavor due to previously invested resources (time, money, effort), rather than based on future benefits

Executive functions

set of high-level cognitive skills that include planning, organization, working memory, and self-control, which are essential for thinking and problem-solving

Creativity

the ability to produce new/novel ideas

Convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the best solution (EX

Divergent thinking

expands the number of possible solutions by “opening the mind in various directions” (EX

Inductive reasoning

an inference based on an observation that develops a theory or general conclusion (Observation→ Generalizations→ Theory)

Deductive reasoning

an inference based on widely accepted facts/theories that test a theory with developing a specific conclusion (Theory→ Predictions→ Experiment)

Functional fixedness

an inability to see another use for an object

Language

a system of communication using symbols (such as words), to express thoughts or ideas

Phonemes

smallest units of speech sound in a given language that are distinct from each other

Morphemes

the smallest unit of a language that carries meaning (usually 2+ phonemes)

Semantics

the study of how meaning is derived from words, phrases, and sentences

Grammar

the rules for combining meaningful elements that enables us to combine words and sounds (semantics) to communicate meaning and understand others

Syntax

the set of grammatical rules that govern how words are arranged to form meaningful sentences in a language

Nonverbal gestures

visible bodily actions, such as hand or arm movements, that communicate messages without words

Cooing stage

pre-linguistic phase of language development, occurring around 2 to 4 months of age, where infants make vowel-like sounds such as “ooh” and “aah”

Babbling stage

an early phase of language development where infants produce repetitive, meaningless consonant-vowel combinations like “ba-ba” or “da-da”

One-word stage

a phase where children use a single word to represent a whole idea or sentences (10-18 months)

Telegraphic speech

slightly longer sentences, developing syntax and semantics

Overgeneralization of language

the tendency for language learners to apply a grammatical rule too broadly to words that are exceptions to that rule

Critical period

the “sensitive” period for mastering certain aspects of language before the language-learning window closes (about 7)

Linguistic determinism

concept that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought, as well as thought processes such as categorization, memory, and perception

Linguistic relativity

speakers of different languages develop different cognitive systems as a result of their differences in language

Broca’s area*

region in the frontal lobe that is crucial for speech production

Wernicke’s area*

region in the temporal lobe that is primarily responsible for understanding language