U.S. Government and Civil Rights: Key Documents and Supreme Court Cases

Declaration of Independence

1776 document mainly by Jefferson; inspired by John Locke; listed 26 grievances; declared natural rights (life, liberty, pursuit of happiness); justified independence.

Articles of Confederation

1st U.S. government (1781-1788); weak central gov't; Congress couldn't tax or regulate trade; states held power; Shays' Rebellion exposed flaws.

Great Compromise

Bicameral legislature: House of Representatives based on population, Senate with 2 members per state.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Every 5 enslaved persons counted as 3 for representation in Congress.

Federalists

Favored strong central government; supported Constitution.

Anti-Federalists

Favored state/local power; opposed Constitution without Bill of Rights.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI: Constitution is the "supreme law of the land."

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments (1791); protect freedoms like speech, press, religion, trial by jury, no cruel punishments, etc.

1st Amendment

Freedom of speech, press, religion, assembly, petition.

2nd Amendment

Right to bear arms.

3rd Amendment

No quartering of soldiers without consent.

4th Amendment

Freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures; requires warrants.

5th Amendment

Due process; no self-incrimination; no double jeopardy; eminent domain.

6th Amendment

Right to speedy/public trial, jury, lawyer.

7th Amendment

Right to jury trial in civil cases.

8th Amendment

No cruel or unusual punishment.

9th Amendment

Rights not listed are still reserved to the people.

Near v. Minnesota (1931)

Government cannot use prior restraint (stop publication before printing).

NY Times v. U.S. (1971)

Pentagon Papers case; gov't failed to justify censorship of leaked documents.

NY Times v. Sullivan (1964)

To prove libel, public officials must show "actual malice."

Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)

Speech protected unless it incites "imminent lawless action."

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

Students keep free speech in schools unless it disrupts learning.

Mahanoy v. B.L. (2

21)0 Schools cannot punish off-campus online speech (Snapchat case).

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

Married couples have right to privacy in contraception.

Eisenstadt v. Baird (1972)

Extended privacy right to single individuals (contraceptives).

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Right to abortion under privacy; trimester framework.

Webster v. RHS (1989)

States can restrict public funding of abortion and require viability tests.

Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)

Reaffirmed Roe; allowed restrictions unless they create "undue burden."

Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt (2

16)0 Struck down Texas abortion restrictions as undue burdens.

Dobbs v. Jackson (2

22)0 Overturned Roe and Casey; abortion regulation left to states.

Chief Justice John Roberts

Appointed 2005 by George W. Bush.

Clarence Thomas

Appointed 1991 by George H.W. Bush.

Samuel Alito

Appointed 2006 by George W. Bush.

Sonia Sotomayor

Appointed 2009 by Barack Obama.

Elena Kagan

Appointed 2010 by Barack Obama.

Neil Gorsuch

Appointed 2017 by Donald Trump.

Brett Kavanaugh

Appointed 2018 by Donald Trump.

Amy Coney Barrett

Appointed 2020 by Donald Trump.

Ketanji Brown Jackson

Appointed 2022 by Joe Biden (replaced Justice Breyer).