Exam 1 Study Guide - Psychology Research, Brain & Nervous System, Sensation & Perception

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering key terms and concepts from Exam 1 Study Guide, including research methodology, brain structure, nervous system divisions, and sensation and perception.

Independent Variable (IV)

Condition that is altered or varied by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The measurement in an experiment.

Extraneous Variable

A variable that can affect the experience outside of the experiment.

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study allows unambiguous causal inferences, measuring confidence in experimental control; very high in lab settings.

External Validity

The degree to which findings apply to settings/samples other than the ones studied; higher in field settings.

Ecological Validity

How well a study reflects everyday, real-world situations.

Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR)

A device used to study daily behavior through accurate data collection, mitigating inaccuracies of human self-report.

Placebo Effect

A confound where a person expects a change, and that expectation alone causes changes in their behavior.

Participant Demand

A confound occurring when participants try to behave or answer in a way they think will help the researcher, making results inaccurate.

Experimenter Expectations

A confound that occurs when the experimenter's expectations affect the research results.

Double Blind

An experimental control where neither the participant nor the experimenter knows which condition is being administered.

Correlational Research

Research where the experimenter measures variables without altering them; can establish correlation but cannot claim cause and effect.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between variables ranging from $-0.01$ to $-1$.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between variables ranging from $0.01$ to $1$.

Longitudinal Studies

Research that follows the same group over a long period of time, ranging from months to $50\,\text{years}$.

Qualitative Designs

Research designs that focus on stories and experiences rather than numbers.

Participant Observation

A qualitative research design method involving writing down what is observed.

Case Study

Intensive observation, commonly of one person or a small group, such as Phineas Gage.

Quasi-Experimental Design

A study design relying on pre-existing groups compared as IVs where random assignment is impossible, making causal inferences difficult.

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups so that the experiment is not biased.

Brain Stem

The most basic, oldest, and first-to-develop brain structure; unconsciously controls life support functions like breathing, digestion, and heartbeat.

Cerebellum

Structure known as the 'small brain' that is in charge of movement, posture, and unconscious coordination like walking.

Cerebrum / Cerebral Cortex

The newest and most advanced part of the brain, containing two hemispheres that handle speaking, planning, and primary sensory areas.

Subcortex

Brain structure below the cerebral cortex controlling hunger, thirst, sleep, attention, sex, breathing, and other vital functions; damage can be fatal.

Medulla

Brain structure controlling vital functions like heart rate, breathing, and swallowing.

Pons

Brain structure serving as a bridge between the medulla and other brain areas.

Reticular Formation

Brain structure that influences attention, controls reflexes like breathing, sneezing, coughing, and vomiting, and helps maintain wakefulness and alertness.

Thalamus

Forebrain structure that relays sensory information from the senses to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

The 'master control center' in the forebrain that regulates emotions and emotional behaviors.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord encased in bone; processes sensory information and communicates via electrical impulses through approximately $86\,\text{billion}$ nerve cells.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nervous system division that gets information and sends information to and from the Central Nervous System.

Somatic Nervous System

Subdivision of the PNS that carries messages to/from sense organs and skeletal muscles to control voluntary behavior.

Autonomic Nervous System

Subdivision of the PNS serving internal organs and glands to perform automatic activities.

Sympathetic Branch

Emergency system of the autonomic nervous system that prepares or arouses the body for fight or flight.

Parasympathetic Branch

Branch of the autonomic nervous system that quiets the body and returns it to a lower level of arousal.

Occipital Lobe

Brain lobe housing the primary visual area; the first part of the cortex to receive input from the eyes.

Visual Agnosia

The inability to identify seen objects.

Facial Agnosia

The inability to perceive familiar faces.

Temporal Lobe

Brain lobe registering hearing and smell; houses the primary auditory area and Wernicke's area.

Wernicke's Area

Brain structure located in the temporal lobe responsible for understanding words.

Parietal Lobe

Brain lobe registering bodily sensations like touch and taste; contains the primary somatosensory cortex.

Primary Somatosensory Cortex

Region in the parietal lobe receiving touch, temperature, pressure, and texture sensations.

Frontal Lobe

Last part of the brain to develop; handles complex processes such as speech, problem solving, organization, voluntary movement, and language production.

Broca's Area

Structure in the frontal lobe responsible for language production, including grammar and pronunciation.

Limbic System

Specialized neural structures (amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus, insula cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, prefrontal cortex) controlling drive and producing emotion and motivated behavior.

Amygdala

Limbic system structure closely related to fear responses.

Hippocampus

Limbic system structure involved in long-term memories and physical navigation through space.

Corpus Callosum

Structure connecting the two brain hemispheres, associated with 'split-brain' conditions.

PET Scan

Brain imaging technique recording metabolic activity via injection of a radioactive substance into the bloodstream.

fMRI

Brain imaging technique measuring naturally occurring oxygen level changes in blood flow; has poor temporal resolution.

EEG

Brain imaging technique measuring electrical brain activity; provides precise timing (temporal resolution) but poor spatial resolution.

Diffuse Optical Imaging (DOI)

Brain imaging technique shining infrared light through the skull to track oxygenated blood, providing good temporal and spatial resolution.

Differential Threshold

The point at which one is able to identify a difference between two stimuli at least $50\%$ of the time.

Multimodal Perception

Combinations of senses where information from one sense influences how information from another sense is perceived.

Anosmia

The inability to smell.

Flavor

A sensory combination of tastants and odorants.

Rods

Photoreceptors responsible for vision in dim light, taking about $10\,\text{minutes}$ to recover during dark adaptation.

Cones

Photoreceptors responsible for color vision and seeing in bright light.

Weber's Law

Principle stating that bigger stimuli require a larger difference to be noticed.

Sensory Adaptation

Process where constant and unchanging stimuli get ignored over time.

Transduction

Converting one form of energy into another so the brain can understand and process stimuli.

Amplitude

Physical property of sound waves corresponding to loudness.

Frequency

Physical property of sound waves corresponding to pitch.

Cochlea

Structure in the ear that converts sound waves into an electrical message (transduction of sound).

Vestibular System

Inner ear system composed of $3$ fluid-filled bony canals associated with balance and orientation in space.

Proprioception

Perception of body position via proprioceptors providing knowledge about the position and movement of limbs and trunk.

Kinesthesia

Perception of the body's movement through space.

Cornea

Thin layer on the outside of the eyeball.

Retina

Structure at the back of the eye containing rods and cones that receives images and converts light into electrical signals.

Ventral Pathway

Visual processing pathway known as the 'what' pathway responsible for recognition.

Dorsal Pathway

Visual processing pathway known as the 'where' pathway responsible for location and movement.

Trichromatic Theory

Color vision theory proposing that cones respond preferentially to red, blue, and green.

Opponent Process Theory

Color vision theory stating that retinal ganglion cells analyze cone signals in paired channels: red–green, blue–yellow, and black–white.

Somatotopic Map

The spatial organization of touch and texture information in the primary somatosensory cortex.

Superadditive Effect of Multisensory Integration

Phenomenon where the combined response to multimodal stimuli is stronger than the response to any single modality alone.

Principle of Inverse Effectiveness

Principle stating that multisensory integration provides the greatest benefit when individual unimodal stimuli are weak or less effective on their own.