APES Test Review: Chapters 10, 12, 25

erosion

the process by which loosened material is dissolved, loosened or worn away from one part of the earth's surface and deposited in other places.

strip cropping

a row crop such as corn alternates in strips with another crop such as grass, or grass legume mixtures, that completely cover the soil and reduces erosion

alley cropping

a form of inter-cropping in which several crops are planted together in strips or alleys of trees and shrubs that can provide fruit or fuel-wood

rill erosion

surface water forms fast flowing little rivulets that cut small channels in the soil

gully erosion

rivulets of fast flowing water join together and with each seceding rain cut the channels wider and deeper until they become dishes or gullies

desertification

a process whereby the productive potential of arid or semi-arid land falls by 10% or more, this phenomenon results mostly from human activities

salinization

the accumulation of salts

conventional tillage farming

land is plowed and then the soil is broken up and smoothed to make a planting surface

conservation tillage farming

special tiller break up and loosen the sub-surface of the soil without turning over the top soil, previous crop residues, or any cover vegetation

contour farming

plowing and planting crops in rows that are ninty degress to the slope of the land rather than up and down the sloped contour of the land. Rows at as dams to slow water movement.

windbreaks or shelterbelts

reduces wind erosion, long rows of trees are planted to partially block the wind

green manure

fresh or growing green vegetation plowed into the soil to increase the organic matter and humus available to the next crop

crop rotation

farmers using crop rotation may plant areas or strips with nutrient depleting crops one year; the next year however, they plant the same areas with legumes who's root nodules add nitrogen to the soil

humus

partially decomposed organic matter

infiltration

When water first penetrates the surface of the soil.

leaching

as infiltration occurs, the water dissolves various soil components in upper layers and carries them to lower layers

soil texture

relative amounts of different sizes and types of mineral particles; clay, silt, sand, or gravel

loams

soils with roughly equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt and humus

soil porosity

a measure of the volume of pores or spaces per volume of soil and the average distances between those spaces.

soil permeability

the rate at which water and air move from upper to lower soil layers

soil structure

how soil particles are organized and clumped together

cation exchange capacity

A soil's ability to hold nutrient ions such as Ca2+, K+, and Mg2+ and exchange them with the soil solution, determined by the clay content of the soil.

gully reclamation

restoring severely eroded land by planting shrubs, vines, & trees to stabilize the soil, channels to divert fast moving water, and check dams that will fill up with silt and gradually fill in the gullies.

organic fertilizer

It is derived from animal or vegetable matter

inorganic fertilizer

Consists of mined or synthetically manufactured mineral supplements. They are generally more susceptible to leaching and runoff and may be more likely to cause unintended off-site impacts.

core

the innermost earth zone

mantle

a thick solid zone surrounding the earth's core

crust

the outermost and thinnest zone of the earth

asthenosphere

the liquid region of the mantle, that flows like soft plastic

lithosphere

the most outer part of the rigide mantle and crust

plate tectonics

the theory explaining the movement of plates and the process that occurs at their boundaries

continental drift

the theory that throughout earth's history continents have split and joined as continents have drifted back and forth along the earths surface

divergent plate boundaries

plates move apart from each other in opposite directions

convergent plate boundaries

plates are pushed together by internal forces

subduction zone

where oceanic lithosphere is carried downward (subducted under the island arch or continent).

transform fault

occurs where plates move in opposite but parallel directions along the fracture or fault in the lithosphere.

igneous rock

can form below the earth's surface, or on it, when magma wells up from the upper mantle or deep crust, cools, and hardens into rock

metamorphic rock

produced when a preexisting rock is subjected to high temperatures, high pressures, chemically active fluids, or a combination of those agents

sedimentary rock

forms from sediment when preexisting rocks are weathered and eroded into small pieces, transported from their sources, and deposited in a body of surface water

chemical weathering

the process in which rock is broken down by reactions involving oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water in the atmosphere and the ground.

mechanical weathering

a large rock mass is broken into smaller fragments of the original material, similar to the results you would get get by using a hammer to break a rock into smaller fragments

soil

complex mixture of eroded rock, mineral nutrients, decaying organic matter, water, air, and billions of living organisms (most of them microscopic decomposers)

soil profile

cross-sectional view of the horizons

soil horizons

series of zones in which mature soils are arranged

O Horizon

the top layer, surface litter layer, it consists of freshly fallen undecomposed or partially decomposed leaves, twigs, crop wastes, animal waste, fungi, and other organic materials. Brown or black in color.

A Horizon

top soil layer, is a porous mixture of the partially decomposed bodies of dead plants/animals called "humus" and inorganic materials such as clay, silt, and sand. Very fertile soil that produces high crop yields.

B Horizon

Contains most of a soil's inorganic matter and is mostly broken-down rock consisting of varying mixtures of sand, silt, and clay.

C Horizon

weathered parent material.

frost wedging

most important agent of mechanical weathering; water collects in pores and cracks of rock, expands upon freezing, and splits off pieces of rock

zero population growth (ZPG)

when the number of births and immigrations is equivalent to the number of deaths and emigrations; there is no population growth

(crude) birth rate

the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year

(crude) death rate

the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year

replacement-level fertility

the number of children a couple must bear to replace themselves; slightly higher than 2 per couple

total fertility rate (TFR)

an estimate of the average number of children a woman will have during her child-bearing years under current age-specific birth rates

infant mortality rate

the number of babies out of every 1,000 born each year that die within a year of birth

life expectancy

the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live

age structure

the proportion of the population (or of each sex) at each age level

demographic transition

as countries become industrialized, first their death rates and then their birth rates decline

pre-industrial stage

harsh living conditions lead to a high birth rate (to compensate for high infant mortality) and a high death rate; little population growth

transitional stage

industrialization begins, food production rises, and health care improves. Death rates drop and birth rates remain high, so the population grows rapidly

industrial stage

industrialization is wide spread; the birth rate drops and eventually approaches the death rate. Reasons for this include better access to birth control, decline in the infant mortality rate, increased job opportunities for women, and the high costs of raising children who don't enter the workforce until after high school or college. Population growth continues at a slow rate. Most developed countries are in this stage

postindustrial stage

the birth rate declines even further, equaling the death rate and thus reaching zero population growth. Then the birth rate falls below the death rate and total population size slowly decreases. Emphasis shifts to sustainable forms of economic development

population change

(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)

annual rate of natural population change

(Birth Rate-Death Rate) / 1,000 people x 100

or

= (Birth Rate-Death Rate) / 10

baby boom period

Any period of a greatly increased birth rate

echo boom

children of baby boomers

pre-reproductive age

Ages 0-14

reproductive age

Ages 15-44

post reproductive age

Ages 45 +

demographic trap

rapid population growth that may outstrip economic growth and overwhelm life-support systems "trapping" the country in the transitional stage of demographic transition.

urban areas

towns or cities plus their adjacent sub urban fringes with populations of more than 2500 people (although some countries set minimum at 10000 to 50000 residents)

rural areas

an area with a human population of under 2500 people

degree of urbanization

percentage of an area's population that's living in an urban area

urban growth

rate of increase of urban population

sector city

a city in pie shaped wedges

multiple nuclei city

developed around a number of independent centers or satellite cities

megalopolis

places formed as cities grow outword and separate into urban areas

urban heat island

patterns of air circulation that create a dust dome over the city

dust plume

when wind speeds increase, the dust dome elongates downwind

noise pollution

unwanted disturbing or harmful sounds that impair or interfere causes stress hampers concentration or work efficiency or causes accidents

urban sprawl

dispersed automobile oriented cities with low population density

individual transportation

such as cars motor scooters bicycles and walking

mass transportation

mostly buses and rail systems

rapid rail

which operates on exclusive rites of way on elevated tracks or tunnels

suburban or regional trains

connect the central city with surrounding areas, or provide transportation between major cities in a region

light rail

more modern versions of street cars which can run either with other traffic or on an exclusive rites of way

land use planning

used to determine the best present and future use of each parcel of land in an area

ecological land use planning

in which additional variables are integrated into a model designed to anticipate a region's present and future needs and problems

zoning

in which various parcels of land are designated for certain uses

concentric circle city

Central business District (CBD), deteriorating transition zone, worker's homes, middle-class suburbs, commuters zone; i.e. New York

heavy rail

mass transit like subway, elevated railways, metro trains operating on excluxive right of way tracks

greenbelt

A ring of land maintained as parks, agricultural, or other types of open space to limit the sprawl of an urban area

smart growth

environmentally friendly development practices particularly those that emphasize more efficient infrastructure and less dependence on automobiles. (discourage urban sprawl, direct growth to certain areas, protect land and waterways,)

urban growth boundary

geographical boundaries placed around a city to limit suburban growth within that city