Studied by 3 people
erosion
the process by which loosened material is dissolved, loosened or worn away from one part of the earth's surface and deposited in other places.
strip cropping
a row crop such as corn alternates in strips with another crop such as grass, or grass legume mixtures, that completely cover the soil and reduces erosion
alley cropping
a form of inter-cropping in which several crops are planted together in strips or alleys of trees and shrubs that can provide fruit or fuel-wood
rill erosion
surface water forms fast flowing little rivulets that cut small channels in the soil
gully erosion
rivulets of fast flowing water join together and with each seceding rain cut the channels wider and deeper until they become dishes or gullies
desertification
a process whereby the productive potential of arid or semi-arid land falls by 10% or more, this phenomenon results mostly from human activities
salinization
the accumulation of salts
conventional tillage farming
land is plowed and then the soil is broken up and smoothed to make a planting surface
conservation tillage farming
special tiller break up and loosen the sub-surface of the soil without turning over the top soil, previous crop residues, or any cover vegetation
contour farming
plowing and planting crops in rows that are ninty degress to the slope of the land rather than up and down the sloped contour of the land. Rows at as dams to slow water movement.
windbreaks or shelterbelts
reduces wind erosion, long rows of trees are planted to partially block the wind
green manure
fresh or growing green vegetation plowed into the soil to increase the organic matter and humus available to the next crop
crop rotation
farmers using crop rotation may plant areas or strips with nutrient depleting crops one year; the next year however, they plant the same areas with legumes who's root nodules add nitrogen to the soil
humus
partially decomposed organic matter
infiltration
When water first penetrates the surface of the soil.
leaching
as infiltration occurs, the water dissolves various soil components in upper layers and carries them to lower layers
soil texture
relative amounts of different sizes and types of mineral particles; clay, silt, sand, or gravel
loams
soils with roughly equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt and humus
soil porosity
a measure of the volume of pores or spaces per volume of soil and the average distances between those spaces.
soil permeability
the rate at which water and air move from upper to lower soil layers
soil structure
how soil particles are organized and clumped together
cation exchange capacity
A soil's ability to hold nutrient ions such as Ca2+, K+, and Mg2+ and exchange them with the soil solution, determined by the clay content of the soil.
gully reclamation
restoring severely eroded land by planting shrubs, vines, & trees to stabilize the soil, channels to divert fast moving water, and check dams that will fill up with silt and gradually fill in the gullies.
organic fertilizer
It is derived from animal or vegetable matter
inorganic fertilizer
Consists of mined or synthetically manufactured mineral supplements. They are generally more susceptible to leaching and runoff and may be more likely to cause unintended off-site impacts.
core
the innermost earth zone
mantle
a thick solid zone surrounding the earth's core
crust
the outermost and thinnest zone of the earth
asthenosphere
the liquid region of the mantle, that flows like soft plastic
lithosphere
the most outer part of the rigide mantle and crust
plate tectonics
the theory explaining the movement of plates and the process that occurs at their boundaries
continental drift
the theory that throughout earth's history continents have split and joined as continents have drifted back and forth along the earths surface
divergent plate boundaries
plates move apart from each other in opposite directions
convergent plate boundaries
plates are pushed together by internal forces
subduction zone
where oceanic lithosphere is carried downward (subducted under the island arch or continent).
transform fault
occurs where plates move in opposite but parallel directions along the fracture or fault in the lithosphere.
igneous rock
can form below the earth's surface, or on it, when magma wells up from the upper mantle or deep crust, cools, and hardens into rock
metamorphic rock
produced when a preexisting rock is subjected to high temperatures, high pressures, chemically active fluids, or a combination of those agents
sedimentary rock
forms from sediment when preexisting rocks are weathered and eroded into small pieces, transported from their sources, and deposited in a body of surface water
chemical weathering
the process in which rock is broken down by reactions involving oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water in the atmosphere and the ground.
mechanical weathering
a large rock mass is broken into smaller fragments of the original material, similar to the results you would get get by using a hammer to break a rock into smaller fragments
soil
complex mixture of eroded rock, mineral nutrients, decaying organic matter, water, air, and billions of living organisms (most of them microscopic decomposers)
soil profile
cross-sectional view of the horizons
soil horizons
series of zones in which mature soils are arranged
O Horizon
the top layer, surface litter layer, it consists of freshly fallen undecomposed or partially decomposed leaves, twigs, crop wastes, animal waste, fungi, and other organic materials. Brown or black in color.
A Horizon
top soil layer, is a porous mixture of the partially decomposed bodies of dead plants/animals called "humus" and inorganic materials such as clay, silt, and sand. Very fertile soil that produces high crop yields.
B Horizon
Contains most of a soil's inorganic matter and is mostly broken-down rock consisting of varying mixtures of sand, silt, and clay.
C Horizon
weathered parent material.
frost wedging
most important agent of mechanical weathering; water collects in pores and cracks of rock, expands upon freezing, and splits off pieces of rock
zero population growth (ZPG)
when the number of births and immigrations is equivalent to the number of deaths and emigrations; there is no population growth
(crude) birth rate
the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year
(crude) death rate
the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year
replacement-level fertility
the number of children a couple must bear to replace themselves; slightly higher than 2 per couple
total fertility rate (TFR)
an estimate of the average number of children a woman will have during her child-bearing years under current age-specific birth rates
infant mortality rate
the number of babies out of every 1,000 born each year that die within a year of birth
life expectancy
the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live
age structure
the proportion of the population (or of each sex) at each age level
demographic transition
as countries become industrialized, first their death rates and then their birth rates decline
pre-industrial stage
harsh living conditions lead to a high birth rate (to compensate for high infant mortality) and a high death rate; little population growth
transitional stage
industrialization begins, food production rises, and health care improves. Death rates drop and birth rates remain high, so the population grows rapidly
industrial stage
industrialization is wide spread; the birth rate drops and eventually approaches the death rate. Reasons for this include better access to birth control, decline in the infant mortality rate, increased job opportunities for women, and the high costs of raising children who don't enter the workforce until after high school or college. Population growth continues at a slow rate. Most developed countries are in this stage
postindustrial stage
the birth rate declines even further, equaling the death rate and thus reaching zero population growth. Then the birth rate falls below the death rate and total population size slowly decreases. Emphasis shifts to sustainable forms of economic development
population change
(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)
annual rate of natural population change
(Birth Rate-Death Rate) / 1,000 people x 100
or
= (Birth Rate-Death Rate) / 10
baby boom period
Any period of a greatly increased birth rate
echo boom
children of baby boomers
pre-reproductive age
Ages 0-14
reproductive age
Ages 15-44
post reproductive age
Ages 45 +
demographic trap
rapid population growth that may outstrip economic growth and overwhelm life-support systems "trapping" the country in the transitional stage of demographic transition.
urban areas
towns or cities plus their adjacent sub urban fringes with populations of more than 2500 people (although some countries set minimum at 10000 to 50000 residents)
rural areas
an area with a human population of under 2500 people
degree of urbanization
percentage of an area's population that's living in an urban area
urban growth
rate of increase of urban population
sector city
a city in pie shaped wedges
multiple nuclei city
developed around a number of independent centers or satellite cities
megalopolis
places formed as cities grow outword and separate into urban areas
urban heat island
patterns of air circulation that create a dust dome over the city
dust plume
when wind speeds increase, the dust dome elongates downwind
noise pollution
unwanted disturbing or harmful sounds that impair or interfere causes stress hampers concentration or work efficiency or causes accidents
urban sprawl
dispersed automobile oriented cities with low population density
individual transportation
such as cars motor scooters bicycles and walking
mass transportation
mostly buses and rail systems
rapid rail
which operates on exclusive rites of way on elevated tracks or tunnels
suburban or regional trains
connect the central city with surrounding areas, or provide transportation between major cities in a region
light rail
more modern versions of street cars which can run either with other traffic or on an exclusive rites of way
land use planning
used to determine the best present and future use of each parcel of land in an area
ecological land use planning
in which additional variables are integrated into a model designed to anticipate a region's present and future needs and problems
zoning
in which various parcels of land are designated for certain uses
concentric circle city
Central business District (CBD), deteriorating transition zone, worker's homes, middle-class suburbs, commuters zone; i.e. New York
heavy rail
mass transit like subway, elevated railways, metro trains operating on excluxive right of way tracks
greenbelt
A ring of land maintained as parks, agricultural, or other types of open space to limit the sprawl of an urban area
smart growth
environmentally friendly development practices particularly those that emphasize more efficient infrastructure and less dependence on automobiles. (discourage urban sprawl, direct growth to certain areas, protect land and waterways,)
urban growth boundary
geographical boundaries placed around a city to limit suburban growth within that city
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