History and systems Exam 1

Historiography

The study of the proper way to write history.

Presentism

Interpreting and evaluating historical events in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards.

Historicism

The study of the past for its own sake, without attempting to interpret and evaluate it in terms of current knowledge and standards.

Zeitgeist

The spirit of the times.

Great Person Approach

The approach to history that concentrates on the most prominent contributors to the topic or field, under consideration.

Historical Development Approach

The approach to history that concentrates on an element of a field or discipline and describes how the understanding or approach to studying that element has changed over time.

Eclectic Approach

Take the best from a variety of viewpoints.

Principle of Falsifiability

Popper's contention that for a theory to be considered scientific it must specify the observations that, if made, would refute the theory.

Stages involved in science

Problem- Science begins with a problem or question that needs to be solved. Theories- Scientists propose theories as potential solutions to the problems. These theories are not considered ultimate truths but rather tentative explanations that must be tested. Criticism- Theories must be subjected to rigorous testing and scrutiny.

Pre-paradigmatic stage

In this early stage, there is no single accepted framework or theory guiding research. Scientists work independently, proposing various competing explanations for phenomena.

Paradigmatic Stage

A dominant theory (or paradigm) emerges, which provides a shared framework for research. Scientists work within this paradigm, refining it and applying it to different problems.

Revolutionary Stage

Over time, anomalies (problems that the paradigm cannot explain) accumulate.

Universalism

The belief that some principles, values, or truths are universally applicable across all cultures, societies, or individuals.

Popper vs Kuhn - Scientific Progress

Through falsification and refutation of theories vs Through paradigm shifts and revolutions.

Popper vs Kuhn - Nature of Science

Open-ended, critical, and always testing theories vs Mostly stable within paradigms, disrupted by revolutions.

Popper vs Kuhn - Role of Paradigms

Rejects paradigms as limiting vs Paradigms shape how science is conducted.

Popper vs Kuhn - Normal Science

No such thing; science should always be questioning vs Most science operates within an accepted paradigm.

Popper vs Kuhn - Objectivity vs. Social Influence

Science is objective and independent of social factors vs Science is influenced by social and psychological factors.

Relativism

The idea that truth, morality, and knowledge are not absolute but rather depend on cultural, historical, or personal perspectives.

Biological determinism

The view that human behavior, personality, and abilities are determined by genetic or biological factors rather than environmental factors.

Environmental determinism

The belief that human behavior and societal development are shaped primarily by environmental conditions rather than genetic inheritance.

Sociocultural determinism

The idea that social and cultural factors, such as upbringing, traditions, and societal norms, determine human behavior and thought processes.

Materialism

Philosophers who argue that reality consists only of physical matter and that all phenomena, including consciousness, can be explained in physical terms.

Idealists

Philosophers who believe that reality is fundamentally based on the mind or ideas, rather than physical matter.

Dualists

Those who hold the belief that reality consists of two fundamentally different substances: the physical (body) and non-physical (mind or soul).

Naïve Realism

The common-sense belief that the world is exactly as we perceive it, without any influence from our mental or sensory interpretations.

Nativists

Individuals who believe that certain knowledge, abilities, or traits are innate rather than learned through experience.

Empiricists

Thinkers who argue that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation rather than innate ideas or reasoning.

Rationalism

The philosophical belief that reason and logic, rather than experience, are the primary sources of knowledge.

Empiricism

The theory that all knowledge is derived from sense experience, emphasizing observation and experimentation.

Determinism

The belief that all events, including human actions, are determined by prior causes, whether biological, environmental, or social, and that free will is an illusion.

Heraclitus

Suggested fire as the physis because in its presence nothing remains the same. He reviewed the world as in a constant state of flux and thereby raised the question as to what could be known with certainty.

Pythagoras

Believed that an abstract world consists of numbers and numerical relationships exerted an influence on the physical world.

Democritus

Offered atoms as the physis. Everything in nature including humans, was explained in terms of atoms and their activities.

Hippocrates

Often referred to as the 'Father of Medicine', he developed the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) and emphasized natural causes of disease rather than supernatural explanations.

Protagoras

A Sophist philosopher known for his claim that 'Man is the measure of all things', advocating for relativism in knowledge.

Gorgias

A Sophist who argued that nothing exists, and if it did, it could not be known or communicated.

Socrates

Disagreed with Sophist's contention and there is no discernible truth beyond individual opinion. Known for the Socratic method, which involves questioning to stimulate critical thinking and expose contradictions in arguments.

Theory of Forms

Plato proposed that reality consists of two realms: the physical world and the world of perfect, unchanging Forms (or ideas), which represent the true essence of things.

The Allegory of the Cave

A metaphor for enlightenment, illustrating how individuals who rely solely on their senses are like prisoners in a cave, mistaking shadows for reality.

The Reminiscence Theory of Knowledge

Plato argued that knowledge is innate and that learning is the process of recollecting what the soul already knows from its preexistence.

Causation

Aristotle identified four types of causes that explain why things exist and change.

Material cause

What something is made of. (Ex. Wood for a table)

Formal cause

The blueprint or essence of a thing.

Efficient cause

The force or agent that brings something into being.

Final cause

The purpose or function of a thing.

Laws of Associationism

Aristotle's principles explaining how ideas are connected in the mind.

Law of contiguity

Things experienced together in time or space are linked in memory.

Law of Similarity

Similar concepts tend to be associated with each other.

Law of Contrast

Opposing ideas are connected in thought.

Law of frequency

The more frequently two things are experienced together, the stronger the association.

Skepticism

A philosophical school that questioned the possibility of certain knowledge, arguing that because our senses and reasoning can be deceived, we should suspend judgement and avoid making absolute claims about reality.

Cynicism

A philosophy that rejected societal norms, wealth, and material possessions, advocating for a simple self-sufficient life in accordance with nature.

Epicureanism

Founded by Epicurus, this philosophy emphasized seeking pleasure (in moderation) and avoiding pain as the highest good, promoting intellectual pleasures over physical indulgence.

Stoicism

A philosophy emphasizing rationality, self-discipline, and acceptance of fate, believing that virtue was the highest good and that emotions should be controlled to achieve inner peace.

Neoplatonism

A philosophical system developed from Plato's ideas, emphasizing a metaphysical hierarchy in which all existence emanates from a singular divine source, often called 'The One'.

Philo

A Jewish philosopher who integrated Greek philosophy, especially Platonism, with religious thought, arguing for a mystical interpretation of scriptures.

Plotinus

The major figure in Neoplatonism, he expanded on Plato's ideas, proposing that the ultimate reality is 'The One' from which all things flow.

St. Augustine

A Christian theologian and philosopher who blended Neoplatonism with Christian doctrine, emphasizing the role of divine grace, original sin, and the necessity of faith for true knowledge.

Scholasticism

A medieval philosophical and theological system that sought to reconcile faith with reason, particularly using Aristotelian logic with a Christian framework.

Peter Lombard

A theologian for The Four Books of Sentences, which became a standard textbook for medieval theology, systematically organizing Christian doctrine.

Peter Abelard

A philosopher and theologian famous for his use of logical analysis in theology, particularly in his work Sic et Non (Yes and No), where he examined theological contradictions to refine Christian doctrine.

Thomas Aquinas

The most influential Scholastic thinker, known for Summa Theologica, in which he combined Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. He developed the concept of natural law, argued for the existence of God through his Five Ways, and emphasized the harmony between reason and faith.

William of Ockham

A philosopher and theologian who challenged the Scholastic tradition by advocating for nominalism, which denies the existence of universal concepts outside of individual objects. His ideas laid the foundation for empirical science and modern philosophy.

Occam's Razor

A principle that states that among competing explanations, the simplest one (the one with the fewest assumptions) should be preferred. This principle has had a lasting impact on philosophy, science, and logic.

Renaissance humanism

Humanism during the Renaissance emphasized individualism, the study of classical texts, and the importance of human potential and achievements.

Petrarch

Considered the 'Father of Humanism', he revived interest in ancient Roman and Greek texts, promoting classical scholarship and focus on personal virtue.

Erasmus

A Dutch humanist and theologian who criticized church corruption and emphasized education, free will, and moral philosophy in works.

Martin Luther

A key figure in the Protestant Reformation, he challenged the Catholic Church's practices, emphasizing personal faith and the authority of scripture over church hierarchy.

Ptolemy

Developed a geocentric model (Earth at the center of the universe) that dominated for centuries.

Aristarchus of Samos

Proposed an early heliocentric model, which later gained acceptance.

Copernicus

Developed the modern Heliocentric theory, which placed the Sun at the center of the universe, challenging traditional geocentric views.

Kepler

Discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun, refining Copernicus' model with mathematical precision.

Galileo

Used the telescope to provide evidence for heliocentrism, observing moons orbiting Jupiter, which contradicted the geocentric model.

Objective vs. Subjective Reality

Galileo distinguished between primary (measurable) qualities like motion and size, and secondary (subjective) qualities like color and taste.

Deism

Newton was deist, believing that while God created the universe, it operates according to natural laws without divine intervention.

Inductive reasoning

Derives general principles from specific observations (used in the scientific method).

Deductive reasoning

Starts with general principles and applies them to specific cases.

Idols of the Cave

Personal biases shaped by an individual's background, upbringing, or experiences.

Idols of the Tribe

Human nature biases, such as seeing patterns where none exist.

Idols of the Marketplace

Miscommunication and misunderstandings caused by language and terminology.

Idols of the Theater

Blind acceptance of established philosophies and traditions without questioning.

Rene Descartes

"I think, therefore, I am"- His foundational philosophical statement asserting that the ability to think is the ultimate proof of existence.

Innate Ideas

The belief that certain concepts (such as God, self, and mathematical truths) are present in the mind at birth, rather than learned through experience.

Reflex

Descartes introduced the concept of reflexive responses as automatic bodily reactions, laying the groundwork for later studies in neuroscience.

British Empiricism

The philosophical view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience, rejecting innate ideas.

Thomas Hobbes

Hobbes believed that all mental processes, including thoughts and emotions, arise from physical motions in the brain.

Free Will (Hobbes)

Hobbes was a determinist, meaning he denied true free will, arguing that human actions are determined by external and internal forces.

John Locke

Locke rejected the notion of innate ideas and proposed that all knowledge originates from experience.

Tabula Rasa

Locke described the mind as a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) that is shaped by sensory input and reflection.

Simple Ideas

Basic sensory experiences.

Complex Ideas

Formed by combining simple ideas through processes such as comparison, abstraction, and reflection.

Primary Qualities

Inherent in objects and exist independently of perception.

Secondary Qualities

Depend on the perceiver and do not exist in objects themselves.

George Berkeley

Berkeley opposed materialism, arguing that the physical world only exists as perceptions in the mind.

"To be is to be perceived"

Berkeley's famous principle states that objects only exist when they are perceived.

David Hume

Hume argued that the self is not a fixed entity but a bundle of perceptions that change over time.

Impressions

Direct, vivid sensory experiences.

Ideas

Faint mental copies of impressions.

Laws of Association

Resemblance, Contiguity, Cause and effect are perceived relationships between events.