ESS General Revision

Define the term; “Systems and Modules”

A system/module is an ESS approach to visualising complex sets of interactions among various components, allowing for better understanding and management of interdependencies; ranging from ecological to societal.

Define the term; “EVS”

An EVS is a worldview/paradigm that shapes the way an individual, or group of people, perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced by cultural, religious, economic and societal contexts

What is Ecocentrism?

Ecocentrism is a philosophy that places intrinsic value on all living organisms and their natural environment, prioritizing ecological health and balance over human-centered interests. It prioritises biorights; emphasizing education, and encourages self-restraint in human behavior.

What is Anthropocentrism?

Anthroprocentrism is a philosophy that humans must sustainably manage the environment through the use of systems such as legislation, taxes, and regulations.

What is Technocentrism?

A philosophy that centres around using scientific research to form policies and to understand how systems can be controlled, manipulated, or changed to solve resource depletion amongst other problems.

Define the term; “Equilibria”

A stable state in which a system is able to exist sustainably; such systems often being large in size and diverse.

Define the term; “Tipping point”

The point at which a system, ecological, technological, or societal, reaches a point at which its capacity has been reached by external or internal pressure and can no longer remain stable.

What is pollution?

Pollution is the addition of substances into the natural environment through human activity; the rate at which is greater than the natural environment’s ability to break down waste causing appreciable effects to the organisms within it.

Define: Abiotic factor

An abiotic factor can be defined as a non-living chemical or physical part of an environment that can affect living organisms and the functioning of an ecosystem

Define: Biotic Factor

A biotic factor is when a living organism of an ecosystem has a specific impact on its environment that can affect its functioning or affect other organisms.

Ecosystem

A community of interdependent organisms and the physical environment they inhabit

Species Diversity

The abundance of a species in an environment per unit area; given by two variables: richness (number of species in a community), and evenness (the relative abundance of each species in an environment).

Parasite

2 species interact to the benefit of one and the detriment to the other

Commensalism

2 species interact to the benefit of one and no effect on the other.

Competition

When 2 species or members of the same species interact over the control of similar resources; such as shelter, mates, food, or water.

Species

A group of organisms that share common characteristics and that interbreed to produce offspring

Habitat

The environment in which a species normally lives

Population

A group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time.

Community

A group of populations living and interacting with one another in a common habitat

Niche

Describes the set of abiotic and biotic conditions and resources on which an organism or population responds to

Fundamental Niche

Describes the full range of conditions and resources in which a species exists; such as biotic and abiotic factors (normally affected by competition)

Bio-accumulation

The build up of pollutants in which an organism cannot break down

Bio-magnification

The increase of pollutants in a food chain or across trophic levels

The productivity of a top consumer is…

Nothing. A top consumer receives less than 1% of the available energy in an ecosystem (generally)

Open system

Exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings

Closed system

Exchanges energy not matter, eg: Water cycles, a classroom.

Isolated system

Does not exchange energy nor matter: does not exist.

Model

A simplified version of reality or a system; it can be used to predict what the effects of a change could be on an ecosystem in real life.

GPP (Gross primary productivity)

The total amount of energy produced by autotrophs through photosynthesis

NPP (Net productivity)

The increase of biomass, and the remainder energy stored as biomass

Influences on GPP&NPP are:

Availability of resources such as CO2, water, soil; and light or temperature.

Secondary productivity

The energy transferred from a producer to a consumer, and the energy released from such consumer as faecal matter.

How to calculate NPP?

GPP-R (R for Respiration)

How to calculate R (Respiration)?

GPP+NPP

How to calculate GSP?

GSP = Food eaten - waste

How to calculate NSP?

GSP - R (R for Respiration)

Order GPP, GSP, etc.

GPP →NPP→R, GPP→NPP→GSP/Faecal Loss→NSP/Respiration

Calculate GSP from the following data variables:

Food eaten: 15

Faecal Loss: 4

R: 3

GSP = NSP - R

GSP = 15 - 4

GSP = 11

Worldviews

The lenses through which people describe, see, and understand the world around them. They are made up of political, religious, and philosophical ideas.

“The Environmental Movement”

A term used to describe the process of Humanity’s increasing awareness of the environment, and humanity’s impact on the planet’s biosphere. It is not limited to one organisation, or government in particular, but varied, and wide; all in an effort to address and act on urgent Environmental issues

Who is Wangarĩ Maathai?

Founded the Green Belt Movement, advocating for tree planting, conservation, and women's rights

What is Silent Spring?

A text about the harmful effects of the pesticide DDT passing along food chains to top predators

What were the effects of the Chernobyl nuclear meltdown on environmental policy and viewpoint?

It reinforced society’s fear and negative perceptions surrounding nuclear power, strengthening calls for safer energy alternatives and stricter regulations on nuclear facilities

What was the Kyoto Protocol?

An international treaty building on the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that committed state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, serving as a basis for which future climate change conferences and policies could be implemented across world governments

Outline two outputs of EVS’s

Inputs: Culture, Education. Outputs: Decisions, Actions.

“Discuss the implications of two contrasting EVS systems (anthropocentrism, ecocentrism, technocentrism) in addressing the environmental issue of ___:”.

Possible answer keys/outlines for all EVS’s?

Eco:

• Intrinsic value of Human/Ecosystem relationships

• Interdependence of all living organisms

• Promotes preservation of ___

Anthro:

• Prioritises human values

• Economic Development

• Short-term gain, or disregard for environmental pressures

Techno:

• Implementation of new technologies

• Impacts of innovations in __

Systems Approaches:

A reductionist approach means breaking a system down into its parts and studying each one individually

A holistic approach looks at all of the system's processes and interactions as a whole

Systems

A set of interrelated parts working together to form a unified whole

Ecological Footprint

The total amount of land and water needed to sustain a particular human population. It can be measured by the environmental impact human activities in the area have.

Sustainability

Refers to the responsible use/management of resources in a way that allows both present and future generations to utilise while minimising environmental impact.

Sustainable Development

A concept that focuses on meeting the current needs of society without compromising the needs of future generations. 

Doughnut Economics

An economic model characterised by its considerations for human and societal needs without disregarding planetary ecological limits. 

Sustainability Indicators (definition)

Sustainability indicators are measurable variables or criteria used to assess how sustainable a system, community, or ecosystem is. They provide information about environmental, social, and economic conditions, helping decision-makers evaluate whether current practices can be maintained long-term without degrading resources or ecosystems.

Some Environmentally-based Sustainability Indicators are:

Biodiversity, water quality, soil fertility, carbon emissions

Some Economic-based Sustainability Indicators are:

GDP per capita, resource efficiency, food security

Some Social-based Sustainability Indicators are:

Access to clean water, access to education, life expectancy, etc

Types of limiting factors and examples of them:

Density-Dependent: Competition, Predation, Disease

Density-Independent: Natural disasters, climate extremes

R-Strategists, what phase of ecosystem development would they be found in? 

Intermediate stages, new colonisers after pioneer species organic matter decays into nutrients

Limiting factor

A limiting factor is any condition, resource, or environmental element that restricts the growth, abundance, metabolic processes, or distribution of organisms or populations in an ecosystem.

Examples of Aquatic Abiotic Factors:

Salinity, O2 content, Wave Action

Examples of Abiotic factors (generally):

Temperature, light received, topography, pH, etc.

Natural Capital

Goods and services provided by ecosystems that have value to humans

Natural Income

The yield obtained from natural capital

Ecosystem Services

Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans derive from ecosystems, either directly or indirectly. These services support survival, well-being, and economic activity.

“Goods”, or provisional services from an ecosystem can include?:

Timber, water, food, herbs

Regulating services definition:

The direct benefits that humans gain from the regulation of ecosystem processes

Regulating services examples:

Flood prevention (flood control, planting wetlands), carbon sequestering, water purification, pollinating. 

Provisional services definition:

The physical goods, or resources which directly benefit humans

Supporting services definition:

The underlying natural processes which make other services (provisional and regulating services) possible

Examples of Supporting Services:

Soil formation/maintenance, nutrient cycling, Primary Productivity, Genetic Diversity, etc

Cultural/Social Services

The benefits that humans gain without tampering or harvesting resources from the environment

Cultural/Social Services examples:

Hiking, tourism, spiritualism/religious significance

Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels, for example, genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity.

Importance of Biodiversity:

Provides all service type-benefits:

• Preserves ecosystem stability

• Ensures the reliability of harvesting natural capital from ecosystems 

• Aesthetic/spiritual importance keeps people happy, or attracts tourism, which can serve as income

Threats to biodiversity:

• Habitat loss and fragmentation.

• Overexploitation.

• Pollution.

• Invasive species.

• Climate change.

Conservation Strategies (general definition):

Conservation strategies are methods used to protect and maintain biodiversity, habitats, and ecosystems to ensure their long-term survival and sustainability.

In-situ (in site) Conservation

Protecting species in their natural habitat

Methods of Conservation (using EVS’s)

Ecocentric:

• Establishing protected zones 

• Habitat Restoration

• Biodiversity-first policies, or anti-development policies in ecologically sensitive areas

Anthropocentric:

• Legislation, environmental laws and policies which protect ecosystems from over-exploitation

• Sustainable resource management and harvesting

• Education/Awareness campaigns

• Eco-tourism

Technocentric:

• Geo-engineering

• Biotechnology

• Monitoring systems

• Ex-situ conservation strategies, eg, zoos, parks, etc

Ex-situ conservation

Protecting species outside of their natural habitat- often utilising man-made zoos or facilities to ensure the safety/survival of an endangered species.

CASE STUDY: CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species):

(summary of what it is) and-

(name 1 disadvantage and one advantage)

Restricts trade in endangered plants and animals.

• 👍 Global reach, reduces overexploitation.

• 👎 Enforcement varies, illegal trade continues.

Human Impacts on Ecosystems:

• Deforestation: Soil erosion, biodiversity loss, reduced carbon sequestration.

• Pollution:

  • Air (acid rain, greenhouse gases).

  • Water (eutrophication from agricultural runoff).

  • Soil (chemical waste, heavy metals).

• Urbanisation: Habitat loss, altered hydrology, heat island effect.

• Agriculture: Monocultures, pesticide/fertilizer use, overgrazing.

What is the Hydrological Cycle?

The hydrological cycle, or water cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth's surface, involving processes like evaporation, transpiration, condensation, and precipitation

Human Impacts on the Hydrological system:

Pollution:

• Sewage- excess of organic material in the water supply results in eutrophication

• Non-degradable material results in bioaccumulation throughout the Aquatic trophic levels

Water Flow changes

• CASE STUDY: North Sea/Atlantic Ocean warm water flow

Diverting rivers or sections of rivers

• Restricts water plants and animals that have adapted to the increase in water in that region from the river

• Too much water for the plants and animals that have adapted to reduced amounts of water in their respective habitat

Water Scarcity types

• Physical scarcity: not enough water to meet demand.

• Economic scarcity: water available but not accessible due to poverty/lack of infrastructure.

Domestic Techniques for Water Conservation

• Metering- water meter shows water consumption per household

• Rationing

• Grey-water recycling- waste water reused or recycled for non-potable applications (toilets, outdoor irrigation)

• Low-flush/low-water mechanisms in technology (eg, water-efficient toilets, laundries and dishwashers) 

• Rain water harvesting

Industrial Techniques for Water Conservation

• Greenhouses

• Vegetarian food production

• Drought-resistant crops- less water for livestock

• Desalination facilities

Outline 3 factors for increased demand in aquatic resources:

• Growing human populations- more people, more resources needed, aquatic resources rich in protein make them a resource of interest

• Economic growth and Urbanization- increased economic wealth across the middle and lower classes along with drastic population increases in cities due to trade allows people to diversify their diets- resulting in higher-quality food resources (aqua resources) to be more sought after

• Aquaculture production- advancements in this technology have made aquatic resources more available to the public resulting in increased supply and demand

Inertia

Property of an ecosystem to resist change when disrupted

Outline 3 unsustainable fishing practices:

• Bottom trawling

  • Nets deployed across sea beds resulting in bycatch, over depopulation, and the destruction of coral reefs

• Explosives use

  • Explosives to stun or kill fish cause damage to sea beds and destroy coral

• Poison use

  • Poisons utilized to kill fish, making them easier to catch

  • Results in the unintentional poisoning of corals, and other marine lifeforms 

Overexploitation

Refers to the rate of usage or harvesting of a resource, that which exceeds its ability to be replenished. 

CASE STUDY- AQUATIC RESOURCES: Cod Fisheries in Canada

(provide summary)

(list environmental effects)

Areas in Canada, specifically in Newfoundland, were known to harbor rich amounts of cod, which promoted the foundation of various fisheries dating back to the 15th century. From the 1960’s-1980’s, cod fisheries and advances in fishing technologies led to unprecedented cod yields in the region, resulting in the supply of aquatic resources to increase dramatically. In the late 1980’s, early warning signs of the cod’s local extinction were ignored, resulting in cod numbers to plumet. In 1992, the Canadian government issued a moratorium to allow cod numbers to replenish.

• Depletion of cod resulted in 40,000 jobs to be lost

• Cod populations have not recovered well since their overfishing, resulting in significant local ecological change

Outline 3 international protocols to mitigate overexploitation: 

1. Increasing the size of gaps in fishing nets:

• Fewer unwanted species (that are often discarded) will be caught and killed

  • This is because they can escape through larger net gaps (as long as they are smaller than the species being caught)

2. Fishing quotas limit the number and size of particular fish species that can be caught in a given area

Outline 2 individual/community protocols to mitigate overexploitation

• Sustainable seafood choices:

  • Encouraging consumers to buy seafood that is certified as sustainable

• Food labelling:

  • Providing clear information on the origin and sustainability of seafood products to help consumers make informed choices

MPA’s

Marine protected areas- areas of ocean or bodies of water that are specifically protected to prevent the overexploitation of a species or aquatic resource to prevent ecological collapse

Outline 3 MPA benefits:

Habitat protection:

• MPAs protect critical habitats like coral reefs, seagrass beds and mangroves

• Such aquatic resources can be useful for both humans and the environment (eg, mangroves promote diversity while preventing flooding)

.Species protection:

• MPAs protect endangered and vulnerable species by reducing human-induced pressures such as fishing and pollution

• Fisheries management:

  • MPAs can help maintain sustainable fishery yields by preventing overfishing and allowing fish populations to recover

  • Sustainable fish populations lead to more stable and long-term economic benefits for fishing communities

Briefly outline Aquaculture

Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, and plants. It helps meet global food demand but can have negative environmental impacts like nutrient pollution, disease spread, and habitat loss.

Outline 3 effects of climate change on the ocean:

• Altering water temperature, which can stress or kill species not adapted to warmer waters.

• Causing sea-level rise, which may flood coastal aquaculture systems or infrastructure.

• Changing salinity levels and oxygen availability in water bodies.

Ocean Acification

Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth’s oceans, caused primarily by the absorption of carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere.

Consequences of ocean acidification

• Weakened shells and coral skeletons due to less carbonate availability.

• Reduced biodiversity in marine ecosystems sensitive to pH changes.

• Disruption of food webs since planktonic organisms at the base of the food chain are affected.

• Altered ocean chemistry, which may also affect nutrient and gas exchange processes.

Sources of water pollution:

• Point Sources: Discharge from identifiable locations (e.g., factory pipes, sewage outlets).

• Non-point Sources: Diffuse origins such as agricultural runoff or atmospheric deposition.