Biopsychology: Nervous System, Brain Function, and Rhythms

What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?

The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

What are the components of the central nervous system?

The brain and the spinal cord.

What is the function of the cerebral cortex?

It is involved in higher cognitive functions, emotional processing, sensory perception, and motor control.

What are the two hemispheres of the brain responsible for?

The left hemisphere is associated with language and analytical thinking, while the right hemisphere is involved with musical and artistic abilities.

What is the role of the spinal cord?

It sends nerve signals between the brain and the body and is involved in reflex actions.

What is the somatic nervous system responsible for?

It controls voluntary movements and transmits information between the CNS and the senses.

What is the autonomic nervous system and its functions?

It controls involuntary movements and transmits information from the CNS to internal organs.

What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

The sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

What is the function of the sympathetic nervous system?

It prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses during stressful situations.

What does the parasympathetic nervous system do?

It allows the body to return to homeostasis after a threat has passed.

What are neurons?

Nerve cells that receive and transmit information in the nervous system.

What are the three types of neurons?

Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and relay neurons.

What is the structure of a typical neuron?

It consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon.

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

It speeds up the rate at which nerve impulses are transmitted along the axon.

What is synaptic transmission?

The process by which neurotransmitters are released from one neuron and bind to receptors on another neuron.

What triggers the release of neurotransmitters during synaptic transmission?

An electrical impulse causes calcium channels to open, leading to the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles.

What are the effects of neurotransmitters on the post-synaptic neuron?

They can have either an excitatory effect (making it more likely to fire) or an inhibitory effect (making it less likely to fire).

What is the role of serotonin in synaptic transmission?

Serotonin has an inhibitory effect, making the receiving neuron less likely to fire.

What is the role of acetylcholine in synaptic transmission?

Acetylcholine has an excitatory effect, making the receiving neuron more likely to fire.

What are biological rhythms?

Patterns of biological activity that occur on a regular basis, including circadian, infradian, and ultradian rhythms.

What are endogenous pacemakers?

Internal biological clocks that regulate biological rhythms.

What are exogenous zeitgebers?

External cues, such as light and temperature, that influence biological rhythms.

What is the significance of the fight or flight response?

It prepares the body to respond to perceived threats by increasing heart rate, blood flow, and energy levels.

What is the difference between excitation and inhibition in neurotransmission?

Excitation increases the likelihood of neuron firing, while inhibition decreases it.

What is the role of the brain stem?

It connects the brain to the spinal cord and regulates vital functions.

What is the role of excitation in neuron firing?

Excitation acts like an accelerator, making it more likely for a neuron to fire an impulse.

What is summation in the context of neurons?

Summation is the net effect on the post-synaptic neuron, where it must reach a certain membrane potential to fire.

What happens to neurotransmitters after they bind to receptors?

They unbind and can either be reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron or broken down by enzymes.

What is the function of sensory neurons?

They respond to stimulation in sensory receptors and send signals to the central nervous system.

How do motor neurons function?

They send messages from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, producing movement or response.

What is the role of relay neurons?

They connect sensory and motor neurons and are found only within the brain and spinal cord.

What is the myelin sheath?

A lipid-rich layer that insulates axons, increasing the speed of electrical impulses.

What are nodes of Ranvier?

Small gaps in the myelin sheath that allow electrical impulses to 'jump' and speed up transmission.

What is the synapse?

The gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals.

What is the function of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?

It stimulates and controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.

What is the role of the pituitary gland?

Known as the 'master gland', it controls other glands and releases hormones like TSH and ACTH.

What hormone does the thyroid gland release and what is its function?

Thyroxine, which regulates metabolism and energy conversion.

What is the function of insulin released by the pancreas?

It promotes the absorption of glucose from the blood into cells, lowering blood glucose levels.

What hormones do the adrenal glands release and what is their role?

Adrenaline and noradrenaline, which are involved in the fight or flight response.

What hormones are produced by the ovaries?

Oestrogen and progesterone, which regulate the female reproductive system.

What is the function of testosterone produced by the testes?

It plays a key role in the development of the male reproductive system and secondary sexual characteristics.

What hormone does the pineal gland produce?

Melatonin, which regulates the sleep-wake cycle.

How does the autonomic nervous system react to a threat?

The sympathetic nervous system is activated, increasing heart rate and redirecting blood to muscles.

What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system after a threat?

It helps the body return to normal by establishing homeostasis after the threat response.

What is the role of the pituitary gland in the body's stress response?

It releases adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) to help manage stress.

What physiological changes occur during the body's stress response?

Heart rate increases, blood is diverted to muscles, and adrenaline is released.

What is the function of adrenaline in the body?

Adrenaline increases heart rate, dilates pupils, and enhances breathing rate for more oxygen.

What happens during the parasympathetic response after stress?

The body returns to homeostasis, heart and respiratory rates decrease, and adrenaline secretion slows.

What does the localisation of function theory suggest?

Different brain functions are localised in specific areas responsible for particular behaviours and activities.

What is the motor area of the brain responsible for?

Regulating voluntary movement.

Where is the somatosensory area located and what does it do?

Located in the parietal lobe, it processes sensory information such as touch.

What is the visual area of the brain responsible for?

Receiving and processing visual information.

What does the auditory area of the brain analyze?

Speech and auditory information.

What is Broca's area and its function?

Located in the frontal lobe, it is responsible for speech production.

What is Wernicke's area and its function?

Located in the temporal lobe, it is responsible for language comprehension.

What is the significance of the cerebral cortex?

It covers the inner parts of the brain and is involved in higher brain functions.

What is the homunculus man representation?

It illustrates the amount of motor and sensory area devoted to different body parts.

What evidence supports the localisation of brain functions?

Brain scan studies show specific areas active during tasks, like Petersen et al.'s research on Wernicke's and Broca's areas.

What is the cingulate gyrus and its relevance to OCD?

It helps control motivation and responses; its activity is linked to OCD symptoms.

What did Dougherty et al. (2002) find regarding OCD treatment?

A third of patients showed significant improvement after cingulotomy, supporting localisation of symptoms.

What does the case of Clive Wearing illustrate about brain function?

It shows that specific memory functions can be localised, as he had damage to semantic memory but intact procedural memory.

What did Lashley's research on rats suggest about learning?

Learning and decision-making may not be localised but distributed throughout the brain.

What was the outcome of Lashley's maze experiment with rats?

Removing parts of the cortex did not impair their ability to solve the maze, suggesting a holistic approach to learning.

What are the four lobes of the brain?

Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe.

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

Involved in reasoning, planning, and voluntary movement.

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

Processes sensory information and spatial awareness.

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

Primarily responsible for visual processing.

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

Involved in auditory processing and memory.

How does damage to Broca's area affect speech?

It can cause Broca's Aphasia, leading to slow and non-fluent speech.

How does damage to Wernicke's area affect language?

It can result in difficulties in language comprehension and finding the right words.

What is brain plasticity?

The ability of the brain to change and develop as a result of experience and learning, and to recover after trauma.

How does brain plasticity challenge the idea of localization?

It suggests that if a specific area is damaged, other areas can take over its function.

What is synaptic pruning?

The process where unused connections in the brain are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened.

What did Maguire et al. (2000) find about London taxi drivers?

They found a greater volume of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus, associated with spatial navigation skills.

What is a limitation of Maguire's study?

It is correlational, meaning we cannot conclude that being a taxi driver causes a larger hippocampus.

What did Kuhn et al. (2013) discover about video game players?

They found a significant increase in grey matter in various brain regions after participants played Super Mario 64 for 30 minutes daily over two months.

What changes did Draganski et al. (2006) observe in medical students?

They observed learning-induced changes in the posterior hippocampus and parietal cortex before and after final exams.

What did Mechelli et al. (2004) find regarding bilingual individuals?

They found that bilingual people had a larger parietal cortex compared to non-bilingual individuals.

What is functional recovery of the brain?

The brain's ability to recover from trauma by having unaffected areas adapt and compensate for damaged regions.

What is axonal sprouting?

The growth of new nerve endings that connect with other undamaged nerve cells to form new neuronal pathways.

What is a case study that supports functional recovery?

The case of EB, a boy who had his left brain hemisphere removed, showed significant recovery in language abilities through rehabilitation.

What practical applications arise from understanding brain plasticity?

It has contributed to neurorehabilitation, helping in the treatment of brain trauma and guiding the timing of physical therapy.

What is a negative consequence of brain plasticity?

Maladaptive adaptations, such as poorer cognitive functioning from prolonged drug use or phantom limb syndrome in amputees.

How does age affect functional plasticity?

Functional plasticity tends to reduce with age, affecting the speed of recovery after brain trauma.

What did Marquez de la Plata et al. (2008) find about older patients after brain trauma?

Older patients (40+) regained less function in treatment and were more likely to decline in function in the first five years post-trauma.

What is the difference between localization and holistic function?

Localization refers to specific areas of the brain responsible for certain functions, while holistic function suggests that multiple areas work together.

What areas of the brain are associated with language?

Language is primarily localized in the left hemisphere, particularly in Broca's and Wernicke's areas.

What supporting research is there for localization of function?

Research by Peterson and Dougherty, as well as case studies like Clive Wearing, provide evidence for specific brain functions being localized.

What is the role of rehabilitation in brain recovery?

Rehabilitation helps facilitate recovery by assisting the brain in reorganizing and forming new connections after trauma.

What happens to the brain's ability to recover after trauma over time?

Recovery can occur quickly initially but may slow down after several weeks or months, necessitating ongoing therapy.

What did Marquez de la Plata et al (2008) find about older patients recovering from brain trauma?

Older patients (40+ years) regained less function in treatment and were more likely to decline in function for the first five years following trauma.

What was the finding of Bezzola et al (2012) regarding golf training in older adults?

40 hours of golf training produced changes in neural representation of movement in participants aged 40 to 60, suggesting continued neural plasticity.

How does gender influence recovery from brain injury?

Evidence suggests that women recover better from brain injury because their function is less lateralised.

What is cognitive reserve and how does it relate to brain recovery?

Cognitive reserve refers to the level of educational attainment, which influences recovery; more education is associated with greater chances of a disability-free recovery.

What is lateralisation in the context of the brain?

Lateralisation refers to the division of brain functions between the left and right hemispheres, particularly in language processing.

Who conducted split-brain research and what was its purpose?

Roger Sperry conducted split-brain research to investigate the lateralisation of brain functions after the corpus callosum was severed to control seizures.

What is the corpus callosum?

The corpus callosum is the area of the brain that connects the two hemispheres, facilitating communication between them.

What surgical procedure did split-brain patients undergo?

Patients underwent a commissurotomy, where the corpus callosum was cut to help control severe epileptic seizures.

What was a key finding when a picture was projected to the right visual field of a split-brain patient?

The patient could easily describe what had been shown, indicating that language is processed in the left hemisphere.

What happened when a picture was projected to the left visual field of a split-brain patient?

The patient could not describe what had been shown and typically reported that there was nothing there.