Psyc 100: Ch 7: Learning

SFU PSYC 100 Spring 2026

What is learning? Give examples of how we demonstrate learning

Learning is lasting change caused by experience, and it has to be inferred from behaviour and cannot be directly observed

• Ex. We observe academic learning through exams, or when teaching others have them repeat back what we just explained. For physical skills and learning new skills we could assess things like improvement of fluidity IF RELAVENT TO SKILL

Why can’t learning be observed?

Because it’s an internal thing. We take in stimuli and our brain interprets it but that entire part of the process has no external signs so to find out if this processes even occured we must rely on behaviour to indicate if we have or haven’t learn something.

• Behaviour is an indicator because it proves that we had undergone a lasting change.

What are the 2 types of learning and their meanings?

1. Non-associative learning, learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli. Learning occurs following repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event

• Ex. Theres construction outside your house and day 1 you hear the drilling find it annoying, after a week the sounds still there but you dont notice it. Thus you have learnt that the noise is not important but you didn’t have to associate it with anything to know it wasn’t or was important.

  • Ex.

2. Associative learning is a change as a result of experience where 2 or more stimuli become linked

CONNECTIONS ARE FORMED BETWEEN 2 OR MORE STIMULI

• Ex. You get a phone, at first your phone makes a notifcation sounds doesn’t mean much but after a while you learn that when the sound happens you get a message and you brain associates the sound with a text coming in so immediately after you check your phone, thus your brain learned a relationship between 2 things.

  • Ex. You touch a hot stove and feel pain later you avoid touching the stove because you expect it to hurt.

  • Ex. Every time a school bell rings class ends after some time students start packing their bags immediately when they hear the bell

What are the types of Non-Associative Learning, how many are there, give an example for each

1. Habituation is the weakening of response to a stimulus after repeated presentation.

• Ex. A bird becoming accustomed to human’s presence over time

2. Dishabituation is when there is a recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habitation.

• Ex. A bird becoming anxious when someone new is present, so the bird is habituated to one stimuli but not the new one.

3. Sensitization is a strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli

• Ex. Unexpected noise starles you and you become more responsive to other weaker stimuli that follow (ex. cell phone buzz when you are alone, wind rattling windows etc.)

How is habituation different from neuron fatigue?

• Habituation is a type of non-associative learning where the response to a repeated stimulus decreases because the brain learns the stimulus is not important.

• Neuron fatigue occurs when neurons temporarily reduce their activity because they have been overused. May happen during sensory adaptation whcih is when our sensroy system becomes less sensitive to a constant stimulus over time

which type of learning accounts for most learning

Associative learning

What are the types of Associative Learning, how many are there, give an example for each.

1. Classical Conditioning, is a form of associative learning between 2 previously unrelated stimuli that results in a learned response

• Ex. Pavlov’s Dog.

2. Operant Conditioning is a form of associative learning where behvaiour is modified depending on its consequences, also called insturmental conditioning

• you learn to do more or less of a behviour depending on what happens after you do it

• ex. pushing a button on vending machine getting chocolate, so next time you want chocolate you press those same buttons. or it could be touchign a hot stove it hurts next time you dont touch the stove

Remmeber associative learning is when connections are formed between 2 or more stimuli

Difference between the defenitions of condiitioning and classical conditioning

Conditioning is the association of events in the enviornment

Classical condiitoning is a form of associative learning between 2 previously unrelated stimuli that results in a learned response

What did Ivan Pavlov discover?

He discovered classical condiitoning during an experiment studying digestion in dogs but he realized that the dog would begin to salivate before the food was placed infront of them but instead they satarted salivating when they heard things like footsteps or saw the lab assistant or hear the food being prepared. Meaning the dog associated certain signals with food and tested it by pairing bell and food with enough repetition he noticed that the bell alone caused salivation showing animals can learn association between 2 previous un related stimuli.

What are the elements of classical conditioning?

1. Unconditioned stimulus (US), is a stimulus that on its own elicits a response

• Ex. food, pain or other naturally rewarding things

2. Unconditioned response (UR), a physical response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus and it does not need to be learned

• Ex. Salivation

3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) is a neutral stimulus that eventually elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus with which it has been paired

• Ex. Bell

4. Conditioned Response (CR) a physical response elicited by a conditiioned stimulus as it is acquired through experience and is usally the same as the unconditioned response

• Ex. salivation

Identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in the following example:

Jonathan loves spicy food! Last week, he ate at Tia Mexicana three times and literally perspired from the hot spices. Yesterday, as he drove past the restaurant, Jonathan began to perspire profusely

UCS: Spicy food

UCR: Perspired

CS: driving past the restaurant (visual stimulius)

CR: began to perspire profusely

Identify the UCS, UCR, CS, and CR in the following example:

Jeremiah is six months old. His mother warms his bottles in the microwave. Whenever the bell on the microwave rings, Jeremiah begins to drool.

UCS: Milk

UCR: drooling

CS: is microwave ringing

CR: drooling

How many processes of classical conditioning are there?

6

Name all the processes of classical conditioning

1. Acquisition is the initial learning (conditioning processes) of the stimulus-response relationship.

• This is when the CS is repeatedly paired with the US and the organism learns the association

• Ex. Bell+food= salivation but eventually bell=salivation

2. Extinction is the reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone

• This is when the CR is weaken or disappears when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US

• Ex. Bell(no food) eventually leads to no salivation

3. Spontaneous Recovery the re- emergence of a conditioned response some time after extinction has occurred

• This is the reappearance of the CR after extinction and a rest period

• Ex. Bell=no salivation (after extinction) later the bell will = slight salivation

4. Stimulus generalization is what occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response.

• This is stimuli similar to the CS also produces the CR

• Ex. People who are afraid of snakes are usually afraid of all snakes not just the specific type of snake to which they first felt fear

5. Stimulus discrimination is what occurs when an organism learns to emit a specific behaviour in the presence of a conditioned stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

• This is when the organism learns to respond only to the specific CS and not to similar stimuli

• Ex. learning to distinguish between snakes, or learning to distinguish between different but similar tones/ sounds

6. Higher- order conditioning is what occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning. (conditioning on conditioning)

• this is when a new neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an existing CS without the US

• Ex. if pavlov started pairing music with the bell and then music started to lead to salivating

What is acquisition?

1. Acquisition is the initial learning (conditioning processes) of the stimulus-response relationship.

• This is when the CS is repeatedly paired with the US and the organism learns the association

• The more pairings between the CS and the US the more likely the association will be learned

• The most rapid acquisition followed by the strongest response is a half second delay between the CS and US

• Ex. Bell+food= salivation but eventually bell=salivation

What is extinction?

2. Extinction is the reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone

• This is when the CR is weaken or disappears when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US

• Ex. Bell(no food) eventually leads to no salivation

what is spontaneous recovery

3. Spontaneous Recovery the re- emergence of a conditioned response some time after extinction has occurred

• This is the reappearance of the CR after extinction and a rest period

• Ex. Bell=no salivation (after extinction) later the bell will = slight salivation

what is stimulus generalization

4. Stimulus generalization is what occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response.

• This is stimuli similar to the CS also produces the CR

• Ex. People who are afraid of snakes are usually afraid of all snakes not just the specific type of snake to which they first felt fear

what is stimulus discrimination

5. Stimulus discrimination is what occurs when an organism learns to emit a specific behaviour in the presence of a conditioned stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

• This is when the organism learns to respond only to the specific CS and not to similar stimuli

• Ex. learning to distinguish between snakes, or learning to distinguish between different but similar tones/ sounds

what is higher order conditioning

6. Higher- order conditioning is what occurs when a previously conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning. (conditioning on conditioning)

• this is when a new neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an existing CS without the US

• Ex. if pavlov started pairing music with the bell and then music started to lead to salivating

Explain classical conditioning and fear in terms of Little Albert

• Little albert to start wasn’t scared of the white rat but did fear/cry in response to the loud noise (bc babies naturally scares the baby

• Thus the US was the loud noise and the UR was fear/crying and the CS was the white rat

• So John Watson and Rosalie Rayner paired the white rat and loud noise, by making a loud noise behind him whenever he touched the rat

  • so albert learned that rat= loud noise

• So after this conditioning occured little albert, the loud noise was the US fear/crying was the UR the White rat as the CS and fear as the CR

Whats a phobia

A phobia is a persistent, irrational or obsessive fear of a specific object or situation that may arise as a result of fear conditioning

• its a very extreme case of irrational fear

  • Ex. dog phobias developed after someone got bit by a dog Us was dog bite UR was fear/pain CS was dogs and CR is fear of dogs

What is systematic desensitization

its a process used to condition the extinction of phobias through a gradual exposure to the feared object or situation

What is conditioned taste aversion

A form of classical conditioning where a previously neutral stimulus (often an odour or taste) elicits an aversive reactions after it is paired with illness (nausea)

• basically a food taste or smell becomes associated with illness causing you to avoid that food in the future

• does not take very many times for taste aversion to be experienced

ex. eating seafood then getting food posioning, the US is Food poisoning/nausea UR is vomiting or feeling sick CS taste of seafood. Now the next time you taste or smell seafood you feel nauseous or disgusted as CS is taste or smell of it will CR is the nasueal or disgust.

What is the law of effect and how was it founded

• Is a law that proposes that behaviours leading to reqards are more likely to occurs again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again.

• It was proposed by Edward Thorndike after his puzzle box experiments, where he had puzzle boxes that could open is a mechanism inside was completed and there was food outside to get the cat to try and get out, at the start the cat took a while to get out but once it realized the answer it got faster each time and he concuded animals learn through trial and error

What is behaviourism and its importance

Behaviourism is the systematic study and manipulation of observable behviour

• overall its studying observable behaviours and focusing on things that can be measured scientifncally

• Developed by BF Skinner

• In operant conditioning, organisms don’t just react to things around them. Instead, they perform behaviors that change their environment, and those behaviors can lead to consequences.

• If a behavior is followed by a good or rewarding outcome, the organism is more likely to repeat that behavior in the future.

Define what reinforcer is

A reinforcer is an expeirence that produces an increase in a certain behviour

What are the types of reinforcement and how many are there?

1. Positive Reinforcement, is presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur

• Ex. studying, then getting praise or a good grade means you study more

  • Behaviour + something good is added = behavior increases

2. Negative Reinforcement, is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur

• Ex. Buckling you seatbelt means the annoying alarms stops and you will put your seat belt on faster next time, Addicts escape the cravings and other symptoms by taking the drug

  • Behavior+ something bad is removed= behviour increases

Define what punishment is

Punishment is an experience that produces a decrease in a certain behviour

What are the types of punishments and how many are there?

1. Positive Punishment, is the presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a specific behaviour to decrease the probability of the behavior being repeated

• Ex. hitting someone in response to a behviour, speeding tickets, spraying water on dogs when they jump on ppl

2. Negative Punishment, is the removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the probability of the behviour being repeated

• Ex. Silent treatment, no car or phone privileges, or time outs will all decrease the behviour from happening again

  • more popular approach to postive punishment because ppl are using less violent ways with their kids

What are the differences or similarites between positive punishment and reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement, ex. giving a child a sticker for peeing on the potty

Positive punishment, ex. yelling at child if they dont pee in the potty

Both you are adding something to the behviour by either yelling or giving a sticker but reinforcement is encouraging a behviour while punishment is discouraging it

What are the differences or similarites between negative punishment and reinforcement?

Negative reinforcement, ex. nagging your partner to buy flowers for you until they buy it

Negative punishment, ex. if your partner doesnt buy you flowers you dont let them watch their favorite tv show

Both are taking something away which is either the nagging or withholding tv privleges but reinforcmenet is trying to get a behviour to occur while punishment is trying to stop a behviour from occuring.

What are the types of reinforcers and how many are there?

1. Primary reinforcers is stimulus that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy biological needs. They have survival value meaning we dont need to learn to like them

• Ex. food, water, termination of pain, warmth, sleep, sexual pleasure (sex)

2. Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that starts out as neutral but become rewarding once linked to primary reinforcers or other rewards

• Our brain learns that this thing helps get me something good

• Ex. Money, grades, praise, approval

What are the types of punishers and how many are there?

1. Primary punishers are a stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism

• stimulus that are naturally unpleasant and reduce behviour without needing to be learned

  • Ex. slapping, loud sounds, extreme temperatures, pain

2. Secondary punisher is a stimulus that becomes aversive when associated with a primary punisher

• a stimulus that becomes unpleasant through learning or association with primary punishers or other negative experiences

• Ex. fines, losing privileges, bad grades, criticisms, disapproval (happens somewhat naturally because we are social creatures)

What are the schedules of reinforcement and how many are there

1. Continuous reinforcement is behviour that is reinforced every time it occurs

• it results in learning happening more quickly

2. Intermittent (or partial) reinforcement is behviour that is only followed by reinforcement some of the time

• The desired behviour is harder to dsitinguish thus leading for it to take longer to learn

• There are 2 kinds of intermittent reinforcement

What are the types of intermittent reinforcement?

1. Ratio schedules (2 types), is reinforcement based on the number of responses (behviours)

   1. Fixed Ration schedule, is reinforcment that occurs after a fixed number of response People work fast then pause briefly after getting reward. Ex. coffee punch card buy 10 coffees get 1 free

   2. Variable Ratio schedule, is reinforcement that occurs after an unpredictable average number of responses. Produces very high and steady response/ behaviour. Ex. Slot machines, gambling, fishing, loot boxes, social media scrolling (scrolling past ads till you find good content)

2. Interval Schedule (2 types), is reinforcement based on time

   1. Fixed interval schedule, is reinforcement that occurs every time a fixed time has elapsed. Leads to low rate of responding with increases as time for reinforcement appraoches. Ex. Push button for cross walk, waiting for a scheduled bus ( people respond slowly at first but faster as the time approaches)

   2. Variable interval schedule, is reinforcement that occurs after varying lengths of time. Leads to low rate of responding as reinforcement is tied to time rather than output. Ex. checking email, fishing, pop quizzes (because you never know when the reinforcement will happen)

What is shaping

Shaping is introducing new behaviour by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behviour until the complete behvioural sequence emerges

• overall it’s teaching a behavior step-by-step by rewarding small progress toward the final behavior

ex. steps in training a dog to roll over

what is behviour modifcation

a systematic approach to change behviour using principles of operant conditions

• overall uses reinforcment and punishment to increase desirable behviour and decrease undesirable behviour

EX. teaching new academic, athletic or socail skills or modifying undesirable behviors

What is learned helplessness

Its a phenomeanon

A situation in which repeated exposure to inescapable punishment eventually produces a failure to make escape attempts

Ex. intimate partner violence

What is observational learning

Observational learning or social learning occurs without overt training in response to watching the behaviour of others, called models

• there are 3 kinds

What are the types of observational or social learning

1. Modelling, occurs when an observer learning form the behvior of another ( learning a behviour by watching someone else perform it and copy it) This is the basic form of observational learning

• Ex. a child watching a parent brush their teeth they may copy that behaviour, kid making pop culture references without saying them.

2. Vicarious learning, occurs when an individual observes the consequences to another’s actins and then chooses to duplicate their behaviour or refrain from doing so

• Ex. seeing another student getting praised for answering questions so they start answering questions, or seeing coworker get in trouble for being late so they arrive earlier

3. Mirror neurons, are neurons fired when an animal or human performs an action or when they see another animal perform the same action

• these neurons are why imitation and observational learning are possible

• Ex. seeing someone else smile or yawn you may smile or feel like yawning.

What was the bobo doll experiment

It was an experiemnt done by Albert Bandura where children watched an adult act aggressively towards a bobo doll, then he concluded that we learn all kinds of behvior by watching others including aggressive and violent behviour as he found that children learned to abuse an inflatable clown doll by observing an adult model hit the doll

What is implicit learning and the types

Implicit learning refers to the acquistion of information without awareness

• (type of learning that happens without concious awareness)

• Ex. Learning to talk

1. Spatial navigational learning involves formal associations among stimuli relevant to navigating in space

   • (learning the layout of an enviornment and how to move through it, you learn where things are without studying a map)

   • Ex. knowing how to move through your house in the dark, learning a school campus layout

2. Latent Learning is a form of learning that is no expressed until there is a reward or incentive

   • (learning that occurs without reinforcement, but is not shown until there is motivation to use it)

   • Ex. Rat explores maze without reward but when foods placed they quickly find it

What is insight learning

Its a sudden realiation of a solution to a problem or leap in understanding new concepts

• Ex. chimpanzee sat and ponder how to do complex task before appearing to solve the problem all at once in a flash of insight

• Instead of slowly learning step by step the indivual understands the probelm and sees the solution all at once

What are factors that facilitate learning

1. Timing

   • multiple exposures separated by time facilitate learning facts, repetition with breaks in between

2. Context

   • Studying in several different locations increases the likelihood that you will form strong memories about the information and remember it in other locations

3. Awareness and attention

   • Some types of learning can occur without awareness while others awarenss and attenetion enhances learning

4. Sleep

   • sleep deprivation impairs our ability to pay attention and learn, it can also prevent learned information from moving into mroe permanent long term memory storage

What is the stroop effect

A delay in reaction time that occurs when the meaning of a word confilcts with the colour its printed in

Ex. seeing the word red but printed in blue ink with the task of naming the ink colour not word, most people accidentally say red first because reading words is automatic for our brains

true or false, multitasking is basically always interfering with effectiveness at the task

True

• Students who use Twitter and Facebook while they study get lower grades than those who don’t

• Students who use social media in class negatively impact their learning and that of their peers

What is prenatal learning?

Prenatal learning has 2 types, it is learning that occurs before birth while fetus is still in the womb

1. Non - associative, is learning that involves changes in response to a single stimulus without forming association

• Ex. Infants recognizing galic after being expoed to it in utero

2. Basic associative is learning where 2 stimuli become assoicated before birth

   • Ex. studying of music and relaxation exercises fetuses could be conitioned to move less in response to music

what is postnatal learning

This is leanring that occurs after birth

Ex. neborns only a few hours old can imitate facial expression

what are Learning disorders

They have no consistent defenition but affects a sizeable proportion of canadian children and adults

What are the types of specific learning disorder and general defention

A disorder than interferes with the acquisition and use of one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in the development of academic skills.

1. Dyslexia reading disorder (most common learning disorder)

2. Dyscalculia mathematics disorder

3. Dysgraphia disorder of written expression