Botany Lec LT #1 History of Botany + Intro to Biochemistry + Macromolecules

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What is principles is plant metabolism based on?

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The principles of Chemistry and Physics

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To survive, plants need to be able to ____ and ____ information.

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Store and Use

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97 Terms

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What is principles is plant metabolism based on?

The principles of Chemistry and Physics

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To survive, plants need to be able to ____ and ____ information.

Store and Use

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When plants reproduce what may they pass onto their descendants?

Genes and Information

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True or False : The genes and genetic information that plants have are always constant.

False | Genes and genetic information in plants have the capacity to mutate and change

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What theory suggests that plants need to adapt to survive in their own environment.

The theory of natural selection

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Are plants highly integrated organisms, if so, why?

Yes they are | Plants have the capacity to share energy, nutrients and water resources throughout their bodies.

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An individual plant is the temporary result of what

The interaction of genes and environment

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Do plants have purpose or decision-making capacity? If they do not, explain.

No they do not. Plants lack Anthropomorphism and Teleology.

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Briefly explain the status of the earth’s sulfuric atmosphere 4.75 billion years ago.

The earth’s sulfuric atmosphere was anaerobic (lack of oxygen)

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In the earth’s former anaerobic environment, what organism was responsible for the Great Oxidation Event?

The rise of cyanobacteria

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What occurred in the Great Oxidation Event

There was a rise in cyanobacteria, and it led rise to aerobic organisms.

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What did the rise of aerobic organisms do to organelles?

Aerobic organisms led to the subcellular evolution of organelles that enabled efficient specialization.

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The subcellular evolution of nucleus paved way to

the diversification of cells. | What are these cell diversifications?

  1. Eukaryotic

  2. Prokaryotic

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What were plants used for during The Stone Age / 30,000 BCE

Plants were used as food

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How were plants used in the Bronze Age aka 3000 BCE

Mesopotamian Healthcare | There were written manuals dictating how Herbs could be used, along with plant remedies, and bandages. | Along with magic shit

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In 2500 BC, what book was written detailing plant treatments

Pen T’Sao by Emperor Shen Nung

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How were plants used in the Mesoamerica aka 1900 BCE

  • The olmecs (civilization) learned how to turn Cacao Beans to Chocolate using it for currency

    • The Aztecs and the Mayans then used this as an offering to QUETZALCŌĀTL (snake God)

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How were plants used in the Shang Dynasty aka 1500-1046 BCE

1st uses of tea leaves were medicinal & chewed to aid digestion / salves for skin

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What was the first flower to become tea

Camellia sinensis

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When did Modern Tea brewing practices come to be after the Shang Dynasty

About 1000 years later (past 1046 BCE), people realized they could make tea that does not taste like shit 🙂

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What was Aristotle’s contribution to Botany

He was the first to study Biology | but all his botany shit died

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What was Theophrastus’s contributions to Botany and who was he?

  • The Father of Botany

  • Student of Aristotle who wrote many manuscripts about Botany

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What were the books that Theophrastus wrote and what were in those books.

  1. Enquiry into Plants

  2. On the causes of plants

These detailed the parts of a plant, reproduction and sensitivity to climate of plants. These also labelled plants by their medicinal, edible and herbal properties.

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What is the significance of Biochemistry

the scientific discipline exploring chemical processes within and related to living organisms

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How is biochemistry relevant in Agriculture?

  1. studies on nutrient uptake, soil health and plant metabolism further plant development

  2. Genetic Engineering improves crops

  3. plant-pest interaction improves sustainability and makes ways for environmentally friendly alternatives

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What are the 4 major macromolecules

  1. Nucleic Acids

  2. Carbohydrates

  3. Proteins

  4. Lipids

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What are the functions and characteristics of Nucleic Acids

  • blueprint for life

    • DNA stores genetic material

    • RNA transmits genetic information + regulates gene expression

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What does Glycolysis yield?

ATP and NADH

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What does the citric acid cycle produce

NADH, FADH2, and ATP

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What does Glycogenesis store glucose as, and what is it released for

Glucose is stored as glycogen, and glycogen is released for energy.

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How is energy homeostasis regulated by carbohydrates?

Regulatory Mechanisms ensure energy homeostasis by hormonal and allosteric control.

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One of H2O’s properties is its polarity and and hydrogen bonding. Briefly explain what this means

  1. Due to the electronegativity of the molecules in H20 it gives rise to it’s Hydrogen Bond

  2. Water has adhesive and cohesive natures as it is attracted to itself and other substances.

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One of water’s properties is it’s high heat capacity, explain this property, and its importance in relation to Earth.

This property refers to the high amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of water by 1 degree Celsius.

This property allows the regulation of earth’s temperature as water may absorb large amounts of heat without changing in temperature.

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One of water’s properties is it’s density anomaly, what is this anomaly and how is it important in certain ecosystems?

  1. H20 is denser as a solid than a liquid because of its hexagonal molecular structure

  2. This lets ice on water, and lets ecosystems in cold environments survive as the ice insulates the water below letting there be life.

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One of water’s properties is it’s high heat of vaporization, what is this property and why is it important?

  • This property defines the amount of heat energy required to convert x amount of H20 from liquid to gas.

  • This is important for cooling mechanisms in many organisms like humans ex. evaporation and transpiration.

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One of water’s properties is it’s ability to be a universal solvent, how is this possible and why is it important.

  • Due to water’s hydrogen bond and polarity it is able to break down many solutes.

  • This is important for nutrient transport in biological systems

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One of water’s properties is it’s surface tension. Explain this property

  • a result of the cohesive forces amongst water molecules, gives water its resistance to outside pressures.

  • creation of water droplets

  • water’s capillary action

note : it is this property that gives the illusion that small insects may walk on water.

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One of water’s properties is it’s capacity to be used as a buffer. Explain this property

H20 has the ability to maintain its pH level even when an acid or a base is added to it. This is important as it may help maintain pH stability for internal environments like vertebrate blood.

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What is pH | Define what it stands for and what it is

pH = potential of hydrogen, and it is the measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.

  • Note maintaining a stable pH level is crucial for the homeostasis of various living organisms.

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What is the pH scale, (in relation to 7 < > =)

  1. pH < 7 : acidic

  2. pH = 7 : neutral

  3. pH > 7 : basic / alkaline

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What is a buffer

A buffer is a solution which may withstand pH shifts caused by the addition of an acid or a base. These buffers protect pH stability.

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What are the general formats of a buffer,

  1. weak acid + conjugate base

  2. conjugate acid + weak base

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How is a buffer’s effectiveness measured?

It is measured by its buffering capacity, which is its ability to withstand changes to pH

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What is Blood’s pH dependent on, and also what is the pH level of Blood.

Blood’s pH is approximately 7, and its neutrality depends on its bicarbonate and phosphate buffers.

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What are 2 illnesses that come from pH imbalances in Blood

  1. Acidosis (blood becomes too acidic) → can be treated by a bicarbonate buffer

  2. Alkalosis (blood becomes too alkaline)

These both affect enzymatic functions, and cellular metabolism which a pH buffer may be added medically to treat

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How do buffers affect cellular organelles

Cellular organelles use buffers to create optimal environments for cellular activity.

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How do buffers affect the digestive system

The digestive system uses buffers to neutralize acids in the small intestines.

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Industrially, how are buffers used?

Industries of food production, pharmaceuticals and wastewater treatment employ buffer systems to optimize chemical processes.

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Please explain why the delicate balance of pH is important, and how do we minimize changes in pH balance.

  1. The delicate balance of pH is vital for enzymatic activities, protein structure and cell function

buffers minimize these pH changes by accepting or donating protons hereby stabilizing cellular environments.

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What are macromolecules

Polymeric molecules made up of monomers

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What is Polymeric construction and what does it allow the plant to do?

  1. Polymeric construction are the different ways monomers can bond together to make different polymers.

  2. It also allows the organism to have a simple basic metabolism that only produces few monomers

Note : as a plant physiology changes its monomer assembly changes not the simple basic metabolism.

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What is a Carbohydrate contain, and what is it’s atomic ratio and generalized chemical formula.

  • Carbohydrates usually contain only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

  • the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is close to 2:1

note : generalized chemical formula of carbohydrates is CH2O

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What is the monomer of carbohydrates

A simple sugar, aka a monosaccharide

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What is a disaccharides and which one is the most common in plants

These are two monosaccharides which are covalently bonded. Sucrose is the most common disaccharides in plants.

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What are polysaccharides

Complex sugars which are long saccharide chains

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What makes monosaccharides a relatively unreactive molecule, and why is this important?

Because of the exergonic (energy releasing) ring formation monosaccharides are relatively unreactive, which is ideal for physiological functions.

  • Monosaccharides may be transported from region to region without causing damage or reacting to structures they encounter.

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In plants how are monosaccharides synthesized

Synthesized in leaves from carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis

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What would the interaction of an -OH group and 2 monomer saccharides result in?

A dehydration reaction which forms H20, the loss of water leaves behind “glucose residue”. This lets organisms have great metabolic control.

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What would the reversal of a dehydration reaction do?

It would add water back | Hydrolysis

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What is starch technically known as and what is its role in plants.

aka Amylose (20-25%) and Amylopectin (75-80%) , any excess energy from photosynthesis is stored in plant tissue as starch. This is the primary form of energy storage in plants.

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What would starch be composed of

composed ONLY OF glucose residues (amylose = 100 glucose residues)

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What is the polymerization enzyme of starch?

Starch synthase

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Between Amylopectin and Amylose what is easier to break down and why

Amylopectin because of its branched structure, enzymes in the plant are able to break it down easily.

  • Hence why, amylose is stored less because of how long it takes to break down, making it ideal for long term storage

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What is cellulose and what is its polymerization enzyme

  • The polymerization enzyme is : cellulose synthetase

  • Cellulose provides strength and rigidity to the cell wall.

Most common forms of cellulose : sugars, fibers, starch.

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In plants what makes up the primary cell wall?

Hemicellulose

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What are Amino Sugars

  • sugars containing nitrogen

  • Polymerized into long, branched & interlinked chains called chitin.

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What is a protein

Unbranched polymers composed of amino acids (monomer) (100 - 200 amino acid residues long)

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What is the characteristic of a polypeptide?

>50 amino acids are POLYPEPTIDES

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How many amino acids are used for protein synthesis and what occurs in protein synthesis?

20 amino acids are used for protein synthesis and this is where they form the identity of the protein.

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What is the role of the R group in protein?

The R groups are not involved in polymerization yet they are the backbone of the protein’s property and hence, identity

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Describe the dehydration reaction in protein synthesis

During protein synthesis, the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of the next, water is removed, and a peptide bond is formed.

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4 levels of organization of proteins

  1. Primary

  2. Secondary

  3. Tertiary

  4. Quaternary

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What is the primary structure of proteins

amino acid sequence (charged : basic / acidic)

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What is the secondary structure of proteins

Local structure (coils and folds) | defined by alpha helices (α-helix) & beta strands ( β-strands)

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What is the tertiary structure of proteins

The physical / 3D shape of a protein in its functional mode |

Additional info : sir pao also noted that tertiary is a a single polypeptide which makes protein.

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What is the quaternary structure of proteins

  • interaction between 2+ separate polypeptides

  • is maintained by hydrogen bonding, the interaction of hydrophobic regions, or disulfide bridges.

  • Selective advantage of self-assembly of certain structures, no metabolism needed

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What DNA mutation may be responsible for increased amylopectin in maize starch in Waxy Starch with a wide range of food and industrial applications

mutant waxy allele (wx1)

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Do enzymes partake in chemical reactions?

No, Enzymes are there to help speed up reactions,

they do not facilitate nor partake in the chemical

reaction

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What are some examples of Enzymes in plants?

  1. Amylase

  2. Cellulase

  3. Phosphatase

  4. RuBisCO

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How does protein variation occur?

The way in which they are folded & the number of amino acids is the reason why they are so varied.

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What are the functions of protein?

  1. Structural

  2. Participate in Cell Reactions

  3. Immunity (hemoglobin)

  4. Provide Fuel (egg white)

  5. Movement (actin + myosin)

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What is RuBisCO and what does it go

Ribulose-1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase | Plays a crucial role in photosynthesis by catalyzing the first step of carbon fixation

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What is the monomer of Nucleic Acids and its general format?

Monomer : Nucleotides

General Format : phosphate grp + pentose sugar + nitrogenous base

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What does DNA stand for and what does it do

  • Deoxyribonucleic Acid

    • stores genetic material

    • info guides the polymerization

      of amino acids into proteins

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What does RNA stand for and what does it do?

  • Ribonucleic Acid

    • carry copies of genetic info

      to ribosomes: the sites of

      protein synthesis in the

      protoplasm

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What are the types of RNA

  1. mRNA (Messenger RNA)

  2. tRNA (Transfer RNA)

  3. rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)

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What is the monomer of Lipids and what is the general description of a lipid.

  • Lipids have no true monomers, but they are fats and oily substances that are extremely hydrophobic and water insoluble

Note : Lipids have more hydrogen than oxygen

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What could the general structure of lipids also be known as

Esters of FATTY ACIDS with alcohol

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Differentiate saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids.

  • UNSATURATED : double bonds

  • SATURATED : single bonds

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Differentiate Pyrimidines and Purines

  1. Pyrimidines : One ring

  2. Purines : Two rings

all of these relate to nucleic acids

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What are the 3 classes of lipids

  1. Simple

  2. Complex

  3. Derived

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What are the lipid polymers exposed to oxygen?

cutin (short) & wax (long) are the polymers exposed to oxygen

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What are the function of lipids in plants apart from energy storage?

waterproof and serve to reduce water loss from the plant and prevent fungi from invading epidermal cells

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What is the general make up of a TRIGLYCERIDE

3 fatty acids + 1 molecule of glucose

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What is the general make up of a Phospholipid?

Glycerol + 2 Fatty Acids + Phosphate Group

Hydrophobic Tail + Hydrophilic Head

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Molecularly in the phospholipid bilayer, what property do all cells which make up this bilayer have?

all cells consist of this bilayer of polar lipid molecules

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Explain the namesake “Fluid Mosaic Model”

Fluid : Constantly moving, the cells are not covalently bonded hence they have the capacity to move

Mosaic : There are many molecules embedded within the bilayer ex. Integral, Peripheral proteins