What is principles is plant metabolism based on?
The principles of Chemistry and Physics
To survive, plants need to be able to ____ and ____ information.
Store and Use
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What is principles is plant metabolism based on?
The principles of Chemistry and Physics
To survive, plants need to be able to ____ and ____ information.
Store and Use
When plants reproduce what may they pass onto their descendants?
Genes and Information
True or False : The genes and genetic information that plants have are always constant.
False | Genes and genetic information in plants have the capacity to mutate and change
What theory suggests that plants need to adapt to survive in their own environment.
The theory of natural selection
Are plants highly integrated organisms, if so, why?
Yes they are | Plants have the capacity to share energy, nutrients and water resources throughout their bodies.
An individual plant is the temporary result of what
The interaction of genes and environment
Do plants have purpose or decision-making capacity? If they do not, explain.
No they do not. Plants lack Anthropomorphism and Teleology.
Briefly explain the status of the earth’s sulfuric atmosphere 4.75 billion years ago.
The earth’s sulfuric atmosphere was anaerobic (lack of oxygen)
In the earth’s former anaerobic environment, what organism was responsible for the Great Oxidation Event?
The rise of cyanobacteria
What occurred in the Great Oxidation Event
There was a rise in cyanobacteria, and it led rise to aerobic organisms.
What did the rise of aerobic organisms do to organelles?
Aerobic organisms led to the subcellular evolution of organelles that enabled efficient specialization.
The subcellular evolution of nucleus paved way to
the diversification of cells. | What are these cell diversifications?
Eukaryotic
Prokaryotic
What were plants used for during The Stone Age / 30,000 BCE
Plants were used as food
How were plants used in the Bronze Age aka 3000 BCE
Mesopotamian Healthcare | There were written manuals dictating how Herbs could be used, along with plant remedies, and bandages. | Along with magic shit
In 2500 BC, what book was written detailing plant treatments
Pen T’Sao by Emperor Shen Nung
How were plants used in the Mesoamerica aka 1900 BCE
The olmecs (civilization) learned how to turn Cacao Beans to Chocolate using it for currency
The Aztecs and the Mayans then used this as an offering to QUETZALCŌĀTL (snake God)
How were plants used in the Shang Dynasty aka 1500-1046 BCE
1st uses of tea leaves were medicinal & chewed to aid digestion / salves for skin
What was the first flower to become tea
Camellia sinensis
When did Modern Tea brewing practices come to be after the Shang Dynasty
About 1000 years later (past 1046 BCE), people realized they could make tea that does not taste like shit 🙂
What was Aristotle’s contribution to Botany
He was the first to study Biology | but all his botany shit died
What was Theophrastus’s contributions to Botany and who was he?
The Father of Botany
Student of Aristotle who wrote many manuscripts about Botany
What were the books that Theophrastus wrote and what were in those books.
Enquiry into Plants
On the causes of plants
These detailed the parts of a plant, reproduction and sensitivity to climate of plants. These also labelled plants by their medicinal, edible and herbal properties.
What is the significance of Biochemistry
the scientific discipline exploring chemical processes within and related to living organisms
How is biochemistry relevant in Agriculture?
studies on nutrient uptake, soil health and plant metabolism further plant development
Genetic Engineering improves crops
plant-pest interaction improves sustainability and makes ways for environmentally friendly alternatives
What are the 4 major macromolecules
Nucleic Acids
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
What are the functions and characteristics of Nucleic Acids
blueprint for life
DNA stores genetic material
RNA transmits genetic information + regulates gene expression
What does Glycolysis yield?
ATP and NADH
What does the citric acid cycle produce
NADH, FADH2, and ATP
What does Glycogenesis store glucose as, and what is it released for
Glucose is stored as glycogen, and glycogen is released for energy.
How is energy homeostasis regulated by carbohydrates?
Regulatory Mechanisms ensure energy homeostasis by hormonal and allosteric control.
One of H2O’s properties is its polarity and and hydrogen bonding. Briefly explain what this means
Due to the electronegativity of the molecules in H20 it gives rise to it’s Hydrogen Bond
Water has adhesive and cohesive natures as it is attracted to itself and other substances.
One of water’s properties is it’s high heat capacity, explain this property, and its importance in relation to Earth.
This property refers to the high amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of water by 1 degree Celsius.
This property allows the regulation of earth’s temperature as water may absorb large amounts of heat without changing in temperature.
One of water’s properties is it’s density anomaly, what is this anomaly and how is it important in certain ecosystems?
H20 is denser as a solid than a liquid because of its hexagonal molecular structure
This lets ice on water, and lets ecosystems in cold environments survive as the ice insulates the water below letting there be life.
One of water’s properties is it’s high heat of vaporization, what is this property and why is it important?
This property defines the amount of heat energy required to convert x amount of H20 from liquid to gas.
This is important for cooling mechanisms in many organisms like humans ex. evaporation and transpiration.
One of water’s properties is it’s ability to be a universal solvent, how is this possible and why is it important.
Due to water’s hydrogen bond and polarity it is able to break down many solutes.
This is important for nutrient transport in biological systems
One of water’s properties is it’s surface tension. Explain this property
a result of the cohesive forces amongst water molecules, gives water its resistance to outside pressures.
creation of water droplets
water’s capillary action
note : it is this property that gives the illusion that small insects may walk on water.
One of water’s properties is it’s capacity to be used as a buffer. Explain this property
H20 has the ability to maintain its pH level even when an acid or a base is added to it. This is important as it may help maintain pH stability for internal environments like vertebrate blood.
What is pH | Define what it stands for and what it is
pH = potential of hydrogen, and it is the measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution.
Note maintaining a stable pH level is crucial for the homeostasis of various living organisms.
What is the pH scale, (in relation to 7 < > =)
pH < 7 : acidic
pH = 7 : neutral
pH > 7 : basic / alkaline
What is a buffer
A buffer is a solution which may withstand pH shifts caused by the addition of an acid or a base. These buffers protect pH stability.
What are the general formats of a buffer,
weak acid + conjugate base
conjugate acid + weak base
How is a buffer’s effectiveness measured?
It is measured by its buffering capacity, which is its ability to withstand changes to pH
What is Blood’s pH dependent on, and also what is the pH level of Blood.
Blood’s pH is approximately 7, and its neutrality depends on its bicarbonate and phosphate buffers.
What are 2 illnesses that come from pH imbalances in Blood
Acidosis (blood becomes too acidic) → can be treated by a bicarbonate buffer
Alkalosis (blood becomes too alkaline)
These both affect enzymatic functions, and cellular metabolism which a pH buffer may be added medically to treat
How do buffers affect cellular organelles
Cellular organelles use buffers to create optimal environments for cellular activity.
How do buffers affect the digestive system
The digestive system uses buffers to neutralize acids in the small intestines.
Industrially, how are buffers used?
Industries of food production, pharmaceuticals and wastewater treatment employ buffer systems to optimize chemical processes.
Please explain why the delicate balance of pH is important, and how do we minimize changes in pH balance.
The delicate balance of pH is vital for enzymatic activities, protein structure and cell function
buffers minimize these pH changes by accepting or donating protons hereby stabilizing cellular environments.
What are macromolecules
Polymeric molecules made up of monomers
What is Polymeric construction and what does it allow the plant to do?
Polymeric construction are the different ways monomers can bond together to make different polymers.
It also allows the organism to have a simple basic metabolism that only produces few monomers
Note : as a plant physiology changes its monomer assembly changes not the simple basic metabolism.
What is a Carbohydrate contain, and what is it’s atomic ratio and generalized chemical formula.
Carbohydrates usually contain only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is close to 2:1
note : generalized chemical formula of carbohydrates is CH2O
What is the monomer of carbohydrates
A simple sugar, aka a monosaccharide
What is a disaccharides and which one is the most common in plants
These are two monosaccharides which are covalently bonded. Sucrose is the most common disaccharides in plants.
What are polysaccharides
Complex sugars which are long saccharide chains
What makes monosaccharides a relatively unreactive molecule, and why is this important?
Because of the exergonic (energy releasing) ring formation monosaccharides are relatively unreactive, which is ideal for physiological functions.
Monosaccharides may be transported from region to region without causing damage or reacting to structures they encounter.
In plants how are monosaccharides synthesized
Synthesized in leaves from carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis
What would the interaction of an -OH group and 2 monomer saccharides result in?
A dehydration reaction which forms H20, the loss of water leaves behind “glucose residue”. This lets organisms have great metabolic control.
What would the reversal of a dehydration reaction do?
It would add water back | Hydrolysis
What is starch technically known as and what is its role in plants.
aka Amylose (20-25%) and Amylopectin (75-80%) , any excess energy from photosynthesis is stored in plant tissue as starch. This is the primary form of energy storage in plants.
What would starch be composed of
composed ONLY OF glucose residues (amylose = 100 glucose residues)
What is the polymerization enzyme of starch?
Starch synthase
Between Amylopectin and Amylose what is easier to break down and why
Amylopectin because of its branched structure, enzymes in the plant are able to break it down easily.
Hence why, amylose is stored less because of how long it takes to break down, making it ideal for long term storage
What is cellulose and what is its polymerization enzyme
The polymerization enzyme is : cellulose synthetase
Cellulose provides strength and rigidity to the cell wall.
Most common forms of cellulose : sugars, fibers, starch.
In plants what makes up the primary cell wall?
Hemicellulose
What are Amino Sugars
sugars containing nitrogen
Polymerized into long, branched & interlinked chains called chitin.
What is a protein
Unbranched polymers composed of amino acids (monomer) (100 - 200 amino acid residues long)
What is the characteristic of a polypeptide?
>50 amino acids are POLYPEPTIDES
How many amino acids are used for protein synthesis and what occurs in protein synthesis?
20 amino acids are used for protein synthesis and this is where they form the identity of the protein.
What is the role of the R group in protein?
The R groups are not involved in polymerization yet they are the backbone of the protein’s property and hence, identity
Describe the dehydration reaction in protein synthesis
During protein synthesis, the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of the next, water is removed, and a peptide bond is formed.
4 levels of organization of proteins
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Quaternary
What is the primary structure of proteins
amino acid sequence (charged : basic / acidic)
What is the secondary structure of proteins
Local structure (coils and folds) | defined by alpha helices (α-helix) & beta strands ( β-strands)
What is the tertiary structure of proteins
The physical / 3D shape of a protein in its functional mode |
Additional info : sir pao also noted that tertiary is a a single polypeptide which makes protein.
What is the quaternary structure of proteins
interaction between 2+ separate polypeptides
is maintained by hydrogen bonding, the interaction of hydrophobic regions, or disulfide bridges.
Selective advantage of self-assembly of certain structures, no metabolism needed
What DNA mutation may be responsible for increased amylopectin in maize starch in Waxy Starch with a wide range of food and industrial applications
mutant waxy allele (wx1)
Do enzymes partake in chemical reactions?
No, Enzymes are there to help speed up reactions,
they do not facilitate nor partake in the chemical
reaction
What are some examples of Enzymes in plants?
Amylase
Cellulase
Phosphatase
RuBisCO
How does protein variation occur?
The way in which they are folded & the number of amino acids is the reason why they are so varied.
What are the functions of protein?
Structural
Participate in Cell Reactions
Immunity (hemoglobin)
Provide Fuel (egg white)
Movement (actin + myosin)
What is RuBisCO and what does it go
Ribulose-1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase | Plays a crucial role in photosynthesis by catalyzing the first step of carbon fixation
What is the monomer of Nucleic Acids and its general format?
Monomer : Nucleotides
General Format : phosphate grp + pentose sugar + nitrogenous base
What does DNA stand for and what does it do
Deoxyribonucleic Acid
stores genetic material
info guides the polymerization
of amino acids into proteins
What does RNA stand for and what does it do?
Ribonucleic Acid
carry copies of genetic info
to ribosomes: the sites of
protein synthesis in the
protoplasm
What are the types of RNA
mRNA (Messenger RNA)
tRNA (Transfer RNA)
rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)
What is the monomer of Lipids and what is the general description of a lipid.
Lipids have no true monomers, but they are fats and oily substances that are extremely hydrophobic and water insoluble
Note : Lipids have more hydrogen than oxygen
What could the general structure of lipids also be known as
Esters of FATTY ACIDS with alcohol
Differentiate saturated vs unsaturated fatty acids.
UNSATURATED : double bonds
SATURATED : single bonds
Differentiate Pyrimidines and Purines
Pyrimidines : One ring
Purines : Two rings
all of these relate to nucleic acids
What are the 3 classes of lipids
Simple
Complex
Derived
What are the lipid polymers exposed to oxygen?
cutin (short) & wax (long) are the polymers exposed to oxygen
What are the function of lipids in plants apart from energy storage?
waterproof and serve to reduce water loss from the plant and prevent fungi from invading epidermal cells
What is the general make up of a TRIGLYCERIDE
3 fatty acids + 1 molecule of glucose
What is the general make up of a Phospholipid?
Glycerol + 2 Fatty Acids + Phosphate Group
Hydrophobic Tail + Hydrophilic Head
Molecularly in the phospholipid bilayer, what property do all cells which make up this bilayer have?
all cells consist of this bilayer of polar lipid molecules
Explain the namesake “Fluid Mosaic Model”
Fluid : Constantly moving, the cells are not covalently bonded hence they have the capacity to move
Mosaic : There are many molecules embedded within the bilayer ex. Integral, Peripheral proteins