Normandale Bio2041 exam 1

Cell theory

All living organisms are composed of cells

cells are the basic unit of life

all cells come from pre-existing cells

2 types of cell

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

Tools used to study cells

Light microscopy and electron microscopy

3 major parts of cells

nucleus, cytoplasm, and plasma membrane

functions of cell

get nutrients

use nutrients

dispose waste

maintain shape

replicate

Microscopic anatomy

Study of structures seen through a microscopic

Cytology

study of cells

Histology

study of tissue

gross anatomy

study of structures seen by the naked eye

Developmental anatomy

study of structural changes in the body throughout the lifespan and affects of aging

Regional anatomy

study if structures in a single body region

Surface anatomy

study of shapes and landmarks revealing underlying organs

systemic anaotmy

all organs with related functions are studied together

pathological anatomy

deals with changes in cells , tissues and organs caused by disease

radiological anatomy

study of internal body structures using radiological imaging

sagittal plane

divides body left and right

median/ midsagittal plane

divides body in equal left and right

transverse/ horizontal plane

divides the body in top and bottom parts

frontal/coronal plane

divides the body into front and back

axial region

main axis, made up of head, neck and trunk

appendicular region

made up of limbs

cranial cavity

contains the brain

vertebral cavity/canal

contains the spinal cord

thoracic cavity

contains the heart and lungs

abdominopelvic cavity

digestive system, urinary bladder and reproductive organ

body cavity

a hollow space that contains and protects organs

mediastinum

region of the thoracic cavity between lungs ; contains heart, thoracic aorta, esophagus

parietal pleura

serous membrane that lines the wall of the pleural cavity

4 major tissue types

epithelial

connective

muscle

nervous

epithelial tissue

visceral pleura

serous membrane that covers the lung

parietal pericardium

serous membrane that line the pericardium cavity

visceral pericardium

serous membrane that lines the heart

visceral peritoneum

The inner layer directly covers the abdominal organs. 

parietal peritoneum

The outer layer that lines the walls of the abdominal cavity

anatomical posistion

the positioning of the body when it is standing upright and facing forward with each arm hanging on either side of the body, and the palms facing forward.

superior vs inferior

superior is above , inferior is below

contralateral vs ispilateral

contralateral is on opposite sides, ipsilateral is on the same sides

anterior vs posterior / ventral vs dorsal

anterior/ ventral means on the front of the body posterior/ dorsal in the back

superficial vs deep

superficial is closer to the surface, deep is closer to inside the body

proximal vs distal

proximal is closer to the attachment point and distal is further away

supine vs prone

supine in laying face up , prone is laying face down

medial vs lateral

medial is closer to the midline of the body, lateral is further away from the midline

homeostasis

the maintenance of a constant internal environment, in response of internal and external changes

steps in homeostasis

1. Stimulus produces change

2. change is detected by the receptor

3. input : information sent along afferent pathway to control center

4. Output: information sent along efferent pathway to the effector

5. The effector reacts to the stimulus and adjusts its intensity, helping restore the body to its normal state (homeostasis).

Homeostasis is important becuase

Homeostasis is essential for maintaining a stable internal environment, allowing cells and organs to function properly. It regulates factors like temperature, pH, and blood pressure to keep the body healthy and prevent dysfunction.

right upper quadrant

liver and galbladder

right lower quadrant

cecum and appendix

left upper quadrant

stomach and spleen

left lower quadrant

sigmoid colon

What is the structure of the cell membrane?

The cell membrane is a flexible, semi-permeable barrier made of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates

What is the phospholipid bilayer?

A double layer of phospholipids with hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads facing outward and hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails facing inward, forming the basic structure of the cell membrane.

extracellular vs intracellular fluid

extracellular fluid is fluid outside the cell and intracellular fluid is fluid inside the cell

Hydrophilic

Water-loving molecules that are attracted to water and dissolve in it easily, like the heads of phospholipids in the cell membrane

Hydrophobic

Molecules that are afraid of water repel water like the fatty acid tails of phospholipids in the cell membrane

Functions of the membrane proteins

They help with transport, signaling, enzymes, cell recognition, and support.

Peripheral proteins

support the membrane from its cytoplasmic side, cell signaling and enzyme activity

integral proteins

transport, signaling, and cell communication.

What is simple diffusion?

The movement of molecules from high to low concentration without energy or help from proteins.

What is facilitated diffusion?

The movement of molecules from high to low concentration with the help of a membrane protein, but no energy is needed.

What is active transport?

the movement of molecules from low to high concentration using energy (ATP) and membrane proteins.

What is vesicular transport?

The movement of large molecules in or out of the cell using vesicles.(endocytosis and exocytosis)

What is endocytosis?

A type of vesicular transport where the cell takes in substances by engulfing them in a vesicle.

What is exocytosis?

A type of vesicular transport where the cell releases substances by fusing a vesicle with the membrane.

What is phagocytosis?

A type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs large particles like bacteria or debris.

What is pinocytosis?

A type of endocytosis where the cell "drinks" extracellular fluid and its dissolved substances.

What is receptor-mediated endocytosis?

A type of endocytosis where the cell takes in specific molecules by using receptors on the membrane.

structure and function of ribosomes?

small, spherical structures made of RNA and proteins. They are responsible for protein synthesis in the cell.

structure and function of the cytoskeleton?

a network of protein filaments (microtubules, actin filaments, intermediate filaments). It provides structural support, shape, and aids in cell movement and division.

structure and function of cilia?

hair-like projections on the cell surface made of microtubules. They move fluid over the cell surface or help in cell movement.

structure and function of microvilli?

Microvilli are tiny finger-like projections on the cell surface. They increase surface area for absorption, particularly in the intestines

Structure and function of rough ER

membrane-bound organelle with ribosomes attached. used for protein synthesis and membrane synthesis

structure and function of smooth ER

lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium storage.

structure and function of the Golgi apparatus

stack of flattened, membrane-bound sacs. It is a packaging and shipping center for proteins and lipids.

structure and function of lysosomes

membrane-bound sacs containing digestive enzymes. They break down waste materials and cellular debris

structure and function of mitochondria

-membrane-bound organelles with inner folds (cristae). They are the powerhouses of the cell, generating ATP (energy) through cellular respiration

structure and function of peroxisomes

small organelles that breakdown free-radicals and toxins

structure and function of the nucleus?

a membrane-bound organelle containing DNA.It controls cell activities, stores genetic information, and is the site of DNA replication and RNA transcription

all membrane organelles

rough ER, smooth ER, Golgi apparatus,lysosomes ,mitochondria, peroxisomes and nucleus

non-membrane bound organelles

Ribosomes, cytoskeleton, cilia, and microvilli

2-step process in making proteins

Transcription: DNA’s genetic code is copied onto mRNA in the nucleus. Translation: taking the instructions written in a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule and using them to build a protein in cytoplasm

What are the two major stages of the cell cycle?

The two major stages are Interphase (the cell grows and prepares for division) and M phase (mitosis, where the cell divides into two).

What are the subdivisions of Interphase?

• G1 phase (cell growth),

• S phase (DNA replication),

• G2 phase (final preparations for mitosis).

What are the subdivisions of M phase?

• Mitosis (the process where the nucleus divides),

• Cytokinesis (the division of the cytoplasm, resulting in two daughter cells).

What stage are most cells in the nervous and muscular systems found in, in the adult?

Most cells in the nervous and muscular systems are in the G0 phase, a resting phase where they no longer divide.

What stage results in a cell with twice the normal amount of DNA?

The S phase results in a cell with twice the normal amount of DNA, as DNA replication occurs during this phase.

What happens when the cell cycle does not function properly?

Improper cell cycle functioning can lead to uncontrolled cell division, resulting in cancer or other diseases.

function of junction proteins

junction proteins connect cells to each other and help maintain tissue structure

characteristics of epithelial tissue

-highly cellular

-polar (apical&basal surface)

-avascular

-regenerative

-attached to basement membrane

importance of the basement membrane

-structural support to epithelium

-anchors epithelial tissue to connective tissue

-barrier/filter

how is epithelial tissue classified?

by cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and layers (simple, stratified, pseudostratified)

endocrine glands

are glands without ducts and secrete hormones into the blood stream

exocrine glands

release products through ducts

examples of endocrine and exocrine glands

Exocrine glands: sweat glands, mucus glands, oil
glands, tear glands, lactiferous glands, salivary
glands, gastric glands, pancreatic acinar cells,
intestinal glands,

Endocrine glands: anterior pituitary gland, thyroid
gland, adrenal gland, granulosa/luteal cells of ovary,
interstitial cells of testis, pineal gland, pancreatic islet
cells,

Merocrine secretion

cells release substances by exocytosis without losing any part of themselves

Apocrine secretion

part of the cell's cytoplasm is lost during secretion (e.g., mammary glands)

Holocrine secretion

Whole cells rupture to release their contents

How is connective tissue classified

two major categories: connective tissue proper (e.g., loose and dense connective tissues) and specialized connective tissues (e.g., bone, blood, cartilage).

What is the difference between hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage?

• Hyaline cartilage: Smooth and glassy, found in joints and respiratory tract.

• Elastic cartilage: Flexible and found in the ear and epiglottis.

• Fibrocartilage: Tough and durable, found in intervertebral discs and knee joints.

How do skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissue differ?

• Skeletal muscle: Voluntary, striated, and multinucleated; responsible for movement.

• Cardiac muscle: Involuntary, striated, and has a single nucleus; found in the heart.

• Smooth muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, and has a single nucleus; found in organs and blood vessels.

functions in the body include movement, posture, heat contraction storage in organs