Basic nutrition and diet therapy

1-a-hydroxylase

The enzyme in the kidneys that catalyzes the hydroxylation reaction of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol to calcitriol, which is the active form of vitamin D; 1-⬆️-hydroxylase activity is increased by parathyroid hormone when blood calcium levels are low

Absorption

The process by which nutrients are taken into the cells that line the gastrointestinal tract

Acetone

A major ketone compound that results from fat breakdown for energy in individuals with uncontrolled diabetes

Achalasia

A disorder of the esophagus in which the muscles of the tube fail to relax, thereby inhibiting normal swallowing

Acidic or alkaline diets

Diets based on the theory that diets high in acidic foods will disrupt the body's normal pH balance, which is slightly alkaline

Acidosis

A blood pH of less than 7.35; respiratory acidosis is caused by an accumulation of carbon dioxide (an acid); metabolic acidosis may be caused by a variety of conditions that result in the excess accumulation of acids in the body or by a significant loss of bicarbonate (a base)

Adipocytes

Fat cells

Adipose tissue

The storage site for excess fat

Adipose

Fat stored in the cells of adipose (fatty) tissue

Aerobic capacity

A state in which oxygen is required to proceed; milliliters of oxygen consumed per kilogram of body weight per minute as influenced by body composition

Aldosterone

A hormone of the adrenal glands that acts on the distal nephron tubule to stimulate the reabsorption of sodium in an ion exchange with potassium

Aldosteronoma

The excess secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex; symptoms and complications include sodium retention, potassium wasting, alkalosis, weakness, paralysis, polyuria, polydipsia, hypertension, and cardiac arrhythmias

Alkalosis

A blood pH of more than 7.45; respiratory alkalosis is caused by hyperventilation and an excess loss of carbon dioxide; metabolic alkalosis is seen with extensive vomiting in which a significant amount of hydrochloric acid is lost and bicarbonate (a base) is secreted

Allergens

Food proteins that elicit an immune system response or an allergic reaction; symptoms may include itching, swelling, hives, diarrhea, and difficulty breathing as well as anaphylaxis in the worst cases

Allergy

A state of hypersensitivity to particular substances in the environment that works on the body tissues to produce problems in the functioning of the affected tissues

Alpha-linolenic acid

An essentially fatty acid with 18 carbon atoms and three double bonds; found in soybean, canola, and flaxseed oil

Amenorrhea

The absence of a menstrual period in a woman of reproductive age

Amenorrheic

The absence of abnormal cessation of the menses

Amino acids

The nitrogen-bearing compounds that form the structural units of protein

Aminopeptidase

A specific protein-splitting enzyme secreted by glands in the walls of the small intestine that breaks off the nitrogen-containing amino end of the peptide chain, thereby producing smaller-chained peptides and free amino acids

Anabolism

The metabolic process of building large substances from smaller parts

Anaerobic

A microorganism that can live and grow in an oxygen-free environment

Anaphylaxis

A severe and sometimes fatal allergic reaction that results from exposure to a protein that the body perceives as foreign and that elicits a systemic response that involved multiple organs

Anemia

A blood condition that is characterized by a deceased number of circulating red blood cells, decreased hemoglobin, or both

Anencephaly

A neural tube defect in which the brain does not form

Anencephaly

The congenital absence of the brain that results from the incomplete closure of the upper end of the neural tube

Angina pectoris

A spasmodic, choking chest pain caused by a lack of oxygen to the heart; this is a symptom of a heart attack, and it also may be caused be severe effort or excitement

Anorexia nervous

An extreme psychophysiologic aversion to food that results in life-threatening weight loss; a psychiatric eating disorder that results from a morbid fear of fatness in which a persons distorted body image is reflected as fat when the body is malnourished and extremely thin a s a result of self-starvation

Anthropometric measurements

The physical measurements of the human body that are used for health assessment, including height, weight, skin fold thickness, and circumference

Antibody

Any of numerous protein molecules produced by B cells as a primary immune defense for attaching to specific related antigens

Antidiuretic hormone

A hormone of the pituitary gland that acts on the distal nephron tubule to conserve water by reabsorption; also called vasopressin

Antigen

Any foreign or non-self substance that trigger the production of antibodies that are specifically designed to counteract their activity

Antioxidant

A molecule that prevents the oxidation of cellular structures by free radicals

Anuria

The absence of urine production; Anuria indicates kidney shutdown or failure

Appetite-regulating network

A hormonally controlled system of appetite stimulation and suppression

Arteriole

The smallest branch of an artery that connects with the capillaries

Ascites

The accumulation of serous fluid in the abdominal cavity

Ascites

Fluid accumulation in the abdominal cavity

Ascorbic acid

The chemical name for vitamin C

Atherosclerosis

The underlying pathology of coronary heart disease; a common form of arteriosclerosis that is characterized by the formation of fatty streaks that contain cholesterol and that develop into hardened plaques in the inner lining of major blood vessels such as the coronary arteries

Atonic

Without normal muscle tone

Atopy patch test

A diagnostic test that is used to assess for allergic reactions on the skin

Atrophy

Tissue wasting

Auscultation

Listening to the sounds of the gastrointestinal tract with a stethoscope

Azotemia

An excess of urea and other nitrogenous substances in the blood

Baby bottle tooth decay

The decay of the baby teeth as a result of inappropriate feeding practices such as putting an infant to bed with a bottle; also called nursing bottle caries, bottle mouth, and bottle caries

Basal energy expenditure

The amount of energy needed by the body for the maintenance of life when a person is at complete digestive, physical, mental, thermal, and emotional rest

Beriberi

A disease of the peripheral nerves that is caused by a defiance of thiamin and is characterized by pain and paralysis of legs and arms

Bile

An emulsifying agent produced by the liver and transported to the gallbladder for concentration and storage; it is released into the duodenum with the entry of fat to facilitate enzymatic fat digestion by acting as an emulsifier

Binge-eating disorder

A psychiatric eating disorder that is characterized by the occurrence of binge eating episodes at least twice a week for a 6-month period

Blood urea nitrogen

A test of nephron function that measures the ability to filter urea nitrogen, which is a product of protein metabolism, from the blood

Body composition

The relative sizes of the four body compartments that make up the total body: lean body mass, fat, water, and bone

Body dysmorphic disorder

An obsession with a perceived defect of the body

Body mass index (BMI)

The body weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters

Body mass index

The body weight in kilograms divided by the square of the height in meters; this measurement correlates with body fatness and the health risks associated with obesity

Bolus feeding

A volume of feeding from 250 mL to 500 mL over s short period of time (usually 10 to 15 minutes) that is given via several feedings per day

Bowman's capsule

The membrane at the head of each nephron; this capsule was named for the English physician Sir William Bowman, who is 1843 first established to the basis of plasma filtration and consequent urine secretion in the relationship of the blood-filled glomeruli and the filtration across the enveloping membrane

Branched-chain amino acids

Amino acids with branched side chains; three of the essential amino acids are branched-chain amino acids: leucine, isoleucine, and valine

Brush border

The cells that are located on the microvilli within the lining of the intestinal tract; the microvilli are tiny hair-like projections that protrude from the mucosal cells that help to increase surface area for the digestion and absorption of nutrients

Bulimia nervosa

A psychiatric eating disorder related to a person's fear of fatness in which cycles of gorging on large quantities of food are followed by compensatory mechanisms to maintain a "normal" body weight

Cachexia

A specific profound syndrome that is characterized by weight loss, reduced food intake, and systemic inflammation

Cajun

A group of people with an enduring tradition whose French-Catholic ancestors established permanent communities in the southern Louisiana coastal waterways after being expelled from Acadia by the reigning English during the late eighteenth century; they developed a unique food pattern form a blend of native French influence and the Creole cooking that was found in the new land

Calcitriol

The activated hormone form of vitamin D

Calorie

A measure of heat; the energy necessary to do work is measured as the amount of heat produced by the body's work; the energy value of a food is expressed as the number of kilocalories that a specified portion of the food will yield when it is oxidized in the body

Carboxypeptidase

A protein enzyme that splits off the carboxyl group at the end of peptide chains

Carboxypeptidase

A specific protein-splitting enzyme secreted as the inactive zymogen procarboxypeptidase by the pancreas; after it has been activated by trypsin, it acts in the small intestine to break off the acid end of the peptide chain, thereby producing smaller-chained peptides and free amino acids

Carcinogenesis

The development of cancer

Carotene

A group name for three red and yellow pigments that are found in dark green and yellow vegetables and fruits; ⬇️-carotene is most important to human nutrition because the body can convert it to vitamin A, thus making it a primary source of the vitamin

Carotenoids

Organic pigments that are found in plants; known to have functions such as scavenging free radicals, reducing the risk of certain types of cancer, and helping to prevent age-related eye disease; more than 600 carotenoids have been identified, with ⬇️-carotene being the most well-known

Catabolism

The metabolic process of breaking down large substances to yield smaller building blocks

Cellulitis

The diffuse inflammation of soft or connective tissues from injury, bruises, or pressure sores that leads to infection; poor Carr may result in ulceration and abscess or gangrene

Cerebrovascular accident

A stroke; a stroke is caused by arteriosclerosis within the blood vessels of the brain that cuts off oxygen supply to the affected portion of brain tissue, thereby paralyzing the actions that are controlled by the affected area

Chelator

A ligand that binds to a metal to form a metal complex

Cholecalciferol

The chemical name for vitamin D3 in its inactive form; it is often shortened to calciferol

Cholecystectomy

The removal of the gallbladder

Cholecystitis

Acute gallbladder inflammation

Cholelithiasis

Gallstones

Cholesterol

A fat-related compound called a sterol that is synthesized only in animal tissues; a normal constituent of bile and a principal constituent of gallstones; in the body, cholesterol is primarily synthesized in the liver; in the diet, cholesterol is found in animal food sources

Chronic dieting syndrome

A cyclic pattern of weight loss by dieting followed by rapid weight gain; this abnormal psychophysiologic food pattern becomes chronic, changing a person's natural body metabolism and relative body composition to the abnormal state of metabolically obese person of normal weight

Chronic kidney disease-mineral and nine disorder

A clinical syndrome that develops as a systemic disorder of mineral and bone metabolism in patients with chronic kidney disease, results from abnormalities of calcium, phosphorus, parathyroid hormone, or vitamin D metabolism; causes abnormalities in bone turnover, mineralization, volume, linear growth, strength, and soft-tissue calcification

Chylomicron

A lipoprotein formed in the intestinal cell that is composed of triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids, and protein; Chylomicrons allow for the absorption of fat into the lymphatic circulatory system before entering the blood circulation

Chyme

The semi fluid food mass in the gastrointestinal tract that is present after gastric digestion

Chymotrypsin

A protein-splitting enzyme secreted as the inactive zymogen chymotrysinogen by the pancreas; after it has been activated by trypsin, it acts in the small intestine to continue breaking down proteins into shorter-chain polypeptides and dipeptides

Chymotrypsin

One of the protein-splitting and milk-curdling pancreatic enzymes that is activated in the small intestine from the precursor chymotrypsinogen; it breaks specific amino acid peptide links of protein

Clinically severe or significant obesity

A body mass index of 40 or more or a body mass index of 35 to 39 with at least one obesity-related disorder; also referred to as extreme obesity and morbid obesity

Cobalamin

The chemical name for vitamin B12; this vitamin is found mainly in animal protein food sources; it is closely related to amino acid metabolism and the formation of the heme portion of hemoglobin; the absence of its necessary digestion and absorption agents in the gastric secretion, hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor, leads to pernicious anemia and degenerative effects on the nervous system

Colloidal osmotic pressure

The fluid pressure that is produced by protein molecules in the plasma and the cell; because proteins are large molecules, they do not pass through the separating membranes of the capillary walls; thus, they remain in their respective compartments and exert a constant osmotic pull that protects vital plasma and cell fluid volumes in these areas

Colostrum

A thin yellow fluid that is first secreted by the mammary glands a few days after childbirth, preceding the mature breast milk; it contains up to 20% protein, including a large amount of lactalbumin, more minerals and less lactose and fat than mature milk as well as immunoglobulins that represent the antibodies that are found in maternal blood

Competitive foods

Any food or beverage that is served outside of a federal meal program in a food-program setting, regardless of nutritional value

Complex carbohydrates

Large complex molecules of carbohydrates composed of many sugar units (polysaccharides); the complex forms of dietary carbohydrates are starch, which is digestible and provides a major energy source, and dietary fiber, which is indigestible (humans lack the necessary enzymes) and thus provides important bulk in the diet

Conditionally indispensable amino acids

The six amino acids that are normally considered dispensable amino acids because the body can make them; however, under certain circumstances, the body cannot make them in high enough quantities, and they become indispensable to the diet

Congestive heart failure

A chronic condition of gradually weakening heart muscle; the muscle is unable to pump normal blood through the heart-lung circulation, which results in the congestion of fluids in the lungs

Continuous feeding

An enteral feeding schedule with which the formula is infused via a pump over a 24-hour period

Coronary heart disease

The overall medical problem that results from the underlying disease of atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries, which serve the heart muscle with blood, oxygen, and nutrients

Creatinine

A nitrogen-carrying product of normal tissue protein breakdown; it is excreted in the urine; serum creatinine levels are an indicator of renal function

Cushing's syndrome

The excess secretion of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex; symptoms and complications include protein loss, obesity, fatigue, osteoporosis, edema, excess hair growth, diabetes, and skin discoloration

Dehiscence

A splitting open; the separation of the layers of a surgical wound that may be partial, superficial, or complete and that involves total disruption and resuturing

Dialysate

The cleansing solution used in dialysis: contains dextrose and others chemicals similar to those in the body

Dialysis

The process of separating crystalloids and colloids in solution by the difference in their rates of diffusion through a semipermeable membrane; crystalloids pass through readily, and colloids pass through slowly or not at all

Dietary reference intakes

The nutrient recommendations for each gender and age group that can be used for assessing and planning diets for healthy populations