Psychology: Key Concepts, Brain Structures, and Research Methods

• Psychology

the scientific study of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

• Correlation

two things happen together, but one doesn't cause the other.

• Causation

one thing makes another happen (needs an experiment).

• Independent variable (IV)

what the researcher changes.

• Dependent variable (DV)

what is measured.

• Random assignment

groups made by chance, so they're equal.

• Replication

repeating studies to confirm results.

• Confounding variables

hidden factors that influence results.

What's an example of a confounding variable

People who carry lighters tend to have higher rates of lung cancer.

Confounding variable: Smoking

• Correlation strength

measured with coefficients (-1.0 to +1.0).

What does a coefficient of 1 represent

highly corellated

What does a coefficient of 0 represent

not corelated

What does a coefficient of -1 represent

inversely correlated

• Descriptive

Describe behavior (e.g., case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation). Can't show cause.

• Correlational

Look for relationships between variables. Can predict but not prove cause.

• Experimental

Manipulate variables to test cause/effect. The only way to show causation.

• What's the difference between correlation and causation?

Correlation predicts but does not prove

• Give an everyday example of correlation that isn't causation.

ice cream sales and shark attacks

• In an experiment on caffeine and memory, what is the IV and DV?

cafeine is IV and memory is DV

• Why do researchers use random assignment?

each group is cvounted as equal

• Why are operational definitions important for replication?

It makes sure each step is detailed enough so replication can be accurate

If stress levels and sleep quality are correlated, what is one possible third/confounding variable?

The amount of workload

• Which correlation is stronger: +0.70 or -0.40?

0.7

• Central nervous system (CNS)

brain + spinal cord.

• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

nerves outside CNS.

• Somatic nervous system

voluntary movement (picking up a cup).

• Autonomic nervous system

automatic functions (heartbeat, digestion).

• Sympathetic nervous system

fight/flight.

• Parasympathetic

rest/digest.

• Dendrites

receive messages.

• Cell body (soma)

: processes information.

• Axon

sends messages away.

• Myelin sheath

speeds messages.

• Axon terminals

release neurotransmitters.

• Neurotransmitters

chemicals that pass signals between neurons.

• Dopamine

movement, reward (linked to Parkinson's, addiction).

• Serotonin

mood (low means depression).

• Acetylcholine

memory, movement (linked to Alzheimer's).

• GABA

calming (alcohol increases GABA activity).

• Glutamate

learning, memory.

Brainstem

(basic survival)

• Medulla

controls heartbeat, breathing.

• Pons

movement coordination, sleep, arousal.

• Reticular formation

alertness, filters incoming info.

Limbic System

(emotion & memory)

• Thalamus

sensory "switchboard," directs info to correct brain area.

• Hypothalamus

hunger, thirst, temperature, sex drive; links brain → endocrine system (pituitary).

• Hippocampus

makes new memories.

• Amygdala

fear, aggression, emotion.

Cortex

(higher thinking)

• Frontal lobes

planning, judgment, personality, impulse control.

• Parietal lobes

touch, spatial reasoning.

• Occipital lobes

vision.

• Temporal lobes

hearing, language.

• Motor cortex

voluntary movement.

• Somatosensory cortex

touch sensations.

Cerebellum

Balance, coordination, procedural learning (like riding a bike).

• REM sleep

dreaming, brain active but body paralyzed (paradoxical sleep).

What are the sleep stages

N1, N2, N3

• N1

light sleep, hypnagogic jerks (twitching, hallucination).

• N2

deeper, sleep spindles.

• N3

deepest sleep, growth hormone released.

• Which part of a neuron sends information?

axon

• Why is the myelin sheath important?

It speeds the messages up and protects the axon

• Which neurotransmitter do antidepressants often target?

serotonin

• What brain area is damaged if you can't form new memories?

Hipocampus

• What system makes your heart race during stress?

sympathetic nervous system

• Why is REM sleep called "paradoxical"?

Brain is very active, body is not active

Who introduced Classical Conditioning

(Pavlov)

•What is classical conditioning

Learning by pairing two things together.

• Give an Example of classical conditioning

: Bell + food → dog salivates. Later, bell alone makes the dog salivate.

Who introduced Operant Conditioning

(Skinner)

•What is operan conditioning

Learning from consequences of actions.

• Whast the goal of Reinforcement

increases behavior.

• Positive reinforcement

add something good (candy for cleaning).

• Negative reinforcement

remove something bad (seatbelt beep stops when you buckle).

• Punishment

decreases behavior.

• Positive punishment

add something bad (extra chores).

• Negative punishment

remove something good (take away phone).

1. Continuous Reinforcement

=Behavior is reinforced every time it happens.

• Example of continuous reinforcement

: Dog gets a treat every time it sits.

• Strength of continuous reinforcement

: Best for learning a new behavior quickly.

• Weakness of continuous reinforcement

: Behavior stops quickly once rewards stop.

2. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

: Behavior is reinforced only some of the time.

• Strength of partial reinforcement

: Slower learning, but behavior is more resistant to extinction.

1. Fixed Ratio (FR)

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

• Example of a fixed ratio

: Worker gets paid after making 10 shirts.

• Pattern of fixed ratios

: High response rate, brief pause after reward.

2. Variable Ratio (VR)

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

• Example of variable ratios

Slot machines, lottery tickets.

• Pattern of variable ratios

: Very high, steady response rate. Most resistant to extinction.

3. Fixed Interval (FI)

Reinforcement after a set amount of time.

• Example of fixed ratio

: Weekly paycheck, quiz every Friday.

• Pattern

Response increases as time for reward approaches.

4. Variable Interval (VI)

Reinforcement after changing, unpredictable time intervals.

• Example of variable interval

: Checking your phone for a message, health inspections.

• Pattern

Slow, steady response rate.

• Shaping

Reinforce small steps toward a big behavior.

• Taste Aversion (Garcia)

Easier to associate taste with sickness than other cues.

• Latent Learning

Learning without obvious reinforcement, shown later (rat learns maze without reward, but shows it when food appears).