Criminology Exam 3

Exam First Question

A as in Attendance

Learning Theories

Learning Theories 

• Learning theories assume that attitudes and behavioral tendencies are acquired via social interaction 

• Each individual enters the world as a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) 

  • Personality and such are made after we are born 

  • Compare to control theories, which assume we enter the world with innately antisocial tendencies 

• Criminal and non-criminal behaviors/values are both learned through social interaction

Differential Association Theory (most prominent learning theory) 

Differential Association Theory (most prominent learning theory) 

• Edwin Sutherland (1947), Principles of Criminology, 4th edition 

• Influences: 

  • Shaw and Mckay’s social disorganization theory (1942) 

    • Antecedent factors of poverty, heterogeneity, and physical dilapidation will lead to a state of social disorganization, which in turn will lead to crime and delinquency 

  • Gabriel Tarde’s imitation theory (1880)

    • Most people copy/imitate others 

    • Greater tendency to copy those we regularly come in close contact with 

    • Individuals tend to imitate those of with high status/prestige 

Differential Association Theory (Sutherland’s Nine Statements) 

1. Criminal behavior is learned 

   1. Not inherited or innate (that is, control theory), a person needs to be socialized/trained into crime 

2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication 

   1. The way you learn what society values, what norms are like, looks of approval or disapproval

3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups 

   1. Communication with family and friends will affect you more than a conversation with a regular acquaintance 

   2. More influence than what is in the media 

4. When a criminal is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very simple; (b) the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes 

   1. Criminal behavior is learning in both methods, successfulness, motives, and rationalizations

5. The specific direction of motive and drives is learned from the definition of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable 

   1. Someone who defines laws sometimes as laws should be followed or believes we should violate laws 

6. A Person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to the violation of the law over definitions unfavorable to the violation of the law 

   1. Essence of differential association theory 

      1. People can have associations that favor criminal behavior 

7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity

8. The process of learning criminal behavior…involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning 

   1. Process of learning criminal behavior is the same as learning any other type of behavior 

9. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those general needs and values, since noncriminal behavior is an expression of some needs and values

Differential Association Theory, Sutherland's Nine Statements (Simplified to Three) 

• The techniques, motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes of criminal behavior are learned in interaction with significant others 

• A person becomes delinquent when she learns, through interaction with significant others, an excess of definitions favorable to violation of the law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law 

• The balance between definitions favorable and unfavorable to violation of the law depends on the frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of criminal vs. noncriminal associations 

Learning Theory vs. Social Bonding Theory (Nervik 2019, Madison Scholar) 

• Learning Theory 

  • Criminal subculture (normative conflict) 

  • Criminals often specialize

  • Criminals often have strong bonds with criminal peers

  • Some social bonds are criminogenic (cause more criminal behavior)

  • Studied serious criminals and their peers

• Social Bonding Theory

  • No real criminal subcultures

  • Criminals are generalists

  • Criminal relationships are “cold and brittle”

  • All bonds are pro-social

  • Studied adolescents in high school

Reactions to Differential Association 

• Many researchers using the theory have incorrectly assumed that it’s only concerned with associations between criminals 

  • Most people have both types of associations: those that are favorable to violation of the law, and those that are favorable to conforming to the law 

  • Sutherland theorized that crime occurs when associations favorable to violation of the law outweigh those that are favorable to conforming to the law

• Individuals will commit corporate crime against their friends’/professors’ opinions if their co-workers superiors at work agreed with the illegal behavior (Piquero et al. 2005) 

  • Being influenced by these people

• Do criminal associations cause crime, or does committing crime lead to criminal associations?

  • Research supports both positons 

• Why did the first criminal do it? 

  • No criminal associations available 

  • Must be another factor(s) causing criminal behavior 

• Empirical research tends to support differential association theory 

  • Young criminals “tutored” by older criminals (Tunnell 1993) 

  • Criminals maintain criminal associations prior to criminal act (Smith et al. 1991) 

  • Deviant attitudes, friends, and acts are closely connected (Ploeger 1997) 

Differential Association Theory 

• The techniques, motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes of criminal behavior are learned in interaction with significant others 

• A person becomes delinquent when she learns, through interaction with significant others, an excess of definitions favorable to violation of the law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law 

• The balance between definitions favorable and unfavorable to violation of the law depends on the frequency, duration, priority, and intensity of criminal vs. noncriminal associations 

“Becoming a Marihuana User” - Howard Beker (1953) 

• Most researchers start with the assumption that marijuana use (and other types of deviance) is the result of internal psychological traits and dispositions 

• Becker disagrees; says becoming a marijuana user is the result of social learning:

  • Learns techniques for getting high 

  • Learns meanings that allow effects to be experienced 

  • Learns to experience the effects as enjoyable 

• Social learning process of becoming a marijuana user: 

1. Learning to smoke marijuana in a way that will produce real effects

   1. Most people when trying to learn, “don’t smoke properly”, someone has to teach them 

   2. “The trouble with people like that [who are not able to get high] is that they're just not smoking it right, that’s all there is to it. Either they’re not holding it down long enough, or they’re getting too much air and not enough smoke, or the other way around or something like that. A lot of people just don’t smoke it right, so naturally nothing’s gonna happen”

2. Learning to recognize the effects and connect them with marijuana use 

   1. “I didn’t get high the first time… the second time I wasn’t sure, and he [smoking companion] he told me, like I asked him some of the symptoms or something, how would I know, you know… So he told me to sit on a stool- and he said, ‘Let your feet hang’ and then when I got down my feet were really cold, you know. I started feeling it, you know.” 

3. Learning to enjoy the perceived effects 

   1. How not to have bad effects, how not to make it destruct life 

   2. Learning how to control the green out

   3. “marihuana -produced sensations are not automatically or necessarily pleasurable. The taste for such an experience is socially acquired, not different in kind from acquired taste for oysters or dry martinis. The user feels dizzy, thirsty; his scalp tingles; he misjudges time and distance; and so on. Are these pleasurable? He isn’t sure. If he is to continue marihuana use, he must decide that they are. Otherwise, getting high, while a real enough experience, will be an unpleasant one he would rather avoid” - Becker (1953) 

Techniques of Neutralization 

• Neutralization Theory: Individuals, especially in their teenage and early adult years, make excuses to alleviate the guilt related to certain criminal acts - Sykes and Matza(1957)

• Techniques: 

  • Denial of Responsibility 

    • Placing cause of act onto something else 

  • Denial of Injury 

    • Stealing a car is borrowing, vandalism being mischief 

  • Denial of Victim 

    • Avengers are saying victims are the wrongdoers 

  • Condemnation of the condemners

    • People condemning me are motivated falsely

  • Appeal to higher loyalties 

    • Spiritual or religious authority, “god said it was my destiny” 

  • (all socially learned in deviant subcultures) 

• Two additional techniques identified in studies of white-colar crime: 

1. Defense of Necessity 

2. Metaphor of the ledger 

Exam Question 1 Answer

A as in Attendance

Two Additional Techniques of Neutralization  (Specifically White Collar)

1. Defense of Necessity 

   1. Belief individual/group/company will not feel shame or guilt about doing something immoral if their behavior is seen as necessary in a white-collar context

2. Metaphor of the ledger 

   1. Belief individual/group/company has done so much good that they feel entitled to do a little bad here and there 

   2. “Good deeds outweigh the bad deeds” 

The Fraud Triangle (Cressey 1953)

• Student made this ^^^ (GRAPHIC)

• Explains factors that lead to fraud and other unethical behavior in the corporate world 

• Lots of crossover with neutralization theory 

• Pressure: motives to do fraud to begin with 

  • Something family, quota 

• Opportunity: they have the opportunity to do a crime

  • Controls money, etc

• Rationalization: need to justify action to themselves

  • Sometimes feel entitled because they “worked hard” 

  • Sometimes feel like fraud is victimless 

Code of the Street - Elijah Anderson (1999) 

• Code of the Street: A set of informal rules governing interpersonal public behavior (including violence in response to disrespect) found in many inner-city neighborhoods 

• Prescribes proper behavior and proper way to respond if challenged 

  • Major feature is use of violence or violence in general

  • Result in lack of faith in police/justice system 

• Developed and enforced by the street-oriented, but both the street- and decent-oriented use the code to negotiate the inner-city environment 

• “Decent” families 

  • Tend to accept mainstream values more fully, and attempt to instill them in their children 

  • Parents value hard work and self-reliance, and tend to be strict with their children, encouraging them to respect authority and walk a “straight moral line” 

  • A majority of families try to approximate this family model 

• “Street” families 

  • Children are aggressively socialized to the code of the streets 

  • Children “grow up hard” with little supervision, often learning to fight from a young age using short-tempered adults as role models 

  • Children are punished if they back down or fail to show nerve/toughness 

  • “Survivial itself, let alone respect, cannot be taken for granted; you have to fight for your place in the world”

• Interpersonal violence and aggression is the most serious problem facing many inner-city black communities 

  • It is this context that the street culture Anderson calls “the code of the street” 

• Culture of violence caused by: 

  • Lack of jobs that pay a living wage 

  • Racism 

  • Lack of faith in the police 

  • Drug use/Trafficking 

  • Alienation and lack of hope 

• These cultures bring in definitions that help break the law^^ 

Is crime caused by the Code or by structural inequality and discrimination?

• Code of the street is “a cultural adaptation to the profound lack of faith in the police and the judicial system” 

  • When people don’t feel protected, they feel the need to protect themselves/their families

  • This leads to a status system in which most violent aggressive have the highest status 

• Two Responses

  • Decent: Constructing families that are strong, loving and committed to the middle-class values 

  • Street: An “oppositional culture” consisting of norms that are (often consciously) opposed to those of mainstream society 

Code of the Street - Elijah Anderson (1999)  Part 2

• Respect and being dissed 

• Respect and “juice’ are currencies 

  • Other people less likely to public challenge you 

• “Respect is at the heart of the code. It is being treated right and being offered the deference one deserves. In street culture, respect is viewed as almost an external entity that is hard-won but easily lost. With the right amount of respect an individual can avoid “being bothered”

• If an individual is bothered, they may not only be in physical danger, they may also be in danger of being disgraced or dissed (disrespected) 

• Disses, e.g. maintaining eye contact for too long, are serious indications of a person’s intentions and may serve as warning of imminent physical confrontation 

• The Respect Hieracy

  • Threat of losing fight is so impactful to status that people will go to crazy means to not lose (guns, knives) 

• Critique 

  • Poverty/Marginalization/discrimination are the cause, while both the culture of “the code of the street” and high rates of violence/crime are the effects

    • Rather than cultural elements being the cause of crime

  • Policy Implication of the critique: 

    • Focusing on/attempting to change the culture (the code of the street) will only be a temporary and situational fix at best 

    • To effectively decrease rates of extreme violence and crime, the root causes (poverty, marginalization) must be addressed 

Life Course Perspective 

• Developmental Theories: Explanatory models of criminal behavior that follow individuals throughout the life course, and emphasize structural, social, and cultural contexts that shape life trajectories and transitions 

  • Explain the development of an individual’s offending over time 

  • Often use longitudinal methods 

    • Research design that involves repeated data collection and observation on the same person over a period of time

    • Opportunities to study life events, and structural features of someone's reality 

  • Among criminologists, it's the second most accepted theoretical paradigm for explaining serious criminal behavior (trailing only social learning theories) 

  • Criminal Career: the sequence of delinquent and criminal acts committed by an individual as the individual ages across the lifespan from childhood through adolescence and adulthood 

  • Onset: when an individual first begins offending 

  • Frequency: how often an individual offends 

  • Intensity: the degree of seriousness of the offense an individual commits 

  • Persistence/Duration: the lengths of time between an individual’s first offense and their final offense 

  • Desistance: the cessation of offending 

  • Most individuals who are arrested are only arrested once in their lifetime 

  • Common pattern for repeat offenders: 

    • Escalation from early-onset, minor-status offending to higher-level petty crimes to more serious/violent crimes 

    • Pattern is not inevitable; almost all serious offenders have followed this path, but individuals on the path can change course

  • Unresolved issues in life-course research: 

    • What counts as “early-onset” 

      • Before age 14

    • Does frequency matter 

Developmental theories explain why someone's criminality changes throughout the life course

Sampson and Laub’s Developmental Model (1993) 

• Early childhood contexts can lead to criminal behavior: 

  • Early antisocial tendencies are linked to criminal offending in adulthood 

  • Structural factors (e.g., poverty) can lead to crime 

    • Leads to problems in socialization, educational development, etc 

  • Peer and sibling influence can affect the likelihood of criminal activity 

• Transitions: specific events that are important in altering long-term trend in behavior (losing job, getting married, publicly convicted, 

• Trajectories: paths people take in life, often due to life transitions

• Main Theoretical Claim: Individuals on a criminal trajectory can either suddenly or gradually desist due to life transitions 

Moffitt’s Developmental Taxonomy (1993) 

• Adolescence-limited offenders: someone who commits crime only during adolescence and desists in adulthood 

  • Caused by association with peers and desire to emulate adults 

  • Activity viewed as “normal” rites of passage

  • Most of the general population can be placed in this group 

• Life-course persistent offender: Someone who starts offending early and persists through adulthood 

  • Only 4-8% of all offenders

  • Most violent/chronic offenders 

  • Commit the vast majority of most serious offenses

  • Caused by an interaction between neurological problems and criminological environments 

• Criminal behavior in teenager years can’t predict who will become a chronic offender; early-onset offending is much more predictive 

Thornberry’s International Model of Offending (1987) 

• Feedback Loops: 

  • Factors that caused criminal behavior are in turn caused (or intensified) by them 

    • Bad ties with parents→ engage in criminal acts→ further weakens attachments

  • Feedback/reciprocal relationship between social control variables and social learning variables 

• Social Control Variables: (decrease the likelihood of criminal activity) 

  • Commitment to school

  • Commitment to parents 

  • Belief in conventional values 

• Social Learning Variables: (increases the likelihood of criminal activity) 

  • Adoption of delinquent values 

  • Association with delinquent peers 

• Self-selection of social learning? BOTH (what came first?) 

Not as simple as: 

• Association with delinquent peers→ Delinquent Behavior → Association with delinquent peers 

Labeling Theory 

• 20th Century: Critical criminology theories began to challenge traditional theories 

  • Offered a critique of the state and structures of power 

• Labeling Theory: Criminal behavior increases because certain individuals are caught and labeled as offenders; i.e., their offending increases because they have been stigmatized 

  • Instead of asking “why do people commit a crime,” it asks: 

    • Who applies the deviant level, and to whom is it applied? 

    • Who establishes the rules? 

    • How does society react to deviant behavior and to people labeled deviant? 

Foundation of Labeling Theory 

• Symbolic Interactionism: Individuals construct meaning the process of social interaction and act according to the meanings they construct 

  • People don’t respond to reality through a filter of socially constructed meaning 

• Looking-glass self: A person views herself according to how she thinks others view her (C.H. Cooley 1902) 

• INdividuals who are stigmatized as deviant/criminal are predisposed to take on a deviant/criminal self-identity 

  • Stigma: An attribute that is deeply discrediting and that diminishes, the individual from a whole and normal person to a tainted, discredited one 

The Dramatization of Evil 

• Crime and Community 

  • Frank Tannenbaum (1938) 

• Gradual shift from the act being defined as evil to the person being defined as evil 

• “Dramatization of evil” involved tagged, defining, and identifying the individual as a criminal 

  • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 

• Acts are deemed good or bad according to the social reaction to them (i.e, according how they are labeled) 

  • Labels occur within a particular social context 

  • Drink wine in restaurant vs drinking on the street 

Primary Deviance and Secondary Deviance 

• Social Pathway (Edwin Lemert, 1951) 

• Primary Deviance: Minor, infrequent offenses that people commit before they are caught and labeled as offenders 

  • Situational and occasional 

  • Excused and rationalized by the individual 

  • The individual sees their behavior as bad, but does not perceive of oneself as bad/deviant person 

• Secondary Deviance: more serious deviant behavior that people commit after they have been caught and labeled as offenders 

  • Individual uses deviant behavior as a way to defend against/adjust to the negative of the community

• Sequence Leading to Secondary Deviance 

  • Primary Deviance 

  • Social Penalties 

  • Further primary deviance 

  • Strong penalties and rejections 

  • Further deviation with hostilities 

  • Formal action by the community 

  • Strengthening of deviant conduct 

  • Ultimate acceptance of deviant social status

The Dimensions of Deviance 

• Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance 

  • Howard Becker (1963) 

• More powerful groups have the empower to impose the rules and apply the deviant level

  • Deviance created not only those who break the rules, but also those who impose the rules

Edwin Schur’s Definition of Deviance 

“Human behavior as deviant to the the extent that it comes to be viewed as involving a personally discreditable departure from a group’s normative expectations, and it elicits interpersonal or collective reaction that serve to ‘isolate,’ ‘treat,’ ‘correct,’ or ‘punish’ individuals engaged in such behavior” 

(Schur 1971; italics in original) 

• “Deviant” and "delinquent" are ascribed statuses 

• Factors in the labeling process:

  • Stereotyping: Applying an oversimplified, unreliable generalization about a group to a member of that group (often based on race) 

  • Retrospective Interpretation: Process by which an individual is identified as a deviant and thereafter viewed in a “new light”

  • Status-degradation ceremony: The most dramatic way to initiate the process of giving an individual a new deviant identity(e.g., criminal trial)

  • Role Engulfment: The process by which an individual fully internalizes a deviant label 

Basic Assumptions of Labeling Theory (Clarence Schrag 1971) 

• Not as intrinsically criminal 

  • Crimes defined by politically powerful/influential groups 

• Criminal definitions are enforced in the interests of the powerful 

• A person does not become a criminal by violating the law, but only by the designation of criminality by authorities 

• The practice of separating individuals into the criminal and noncriminal groups is contrary to common sense and research 

• Only a few individuals are caught violating the law even though many individuals may be equally guilty 

• Being caught and the decisions about punishment, are a functions of offenders characteristics, not of the characteristics of the criminal act 

• Punishments vary according to characteristics of the offender, especially race, socioeconomic status, and age 

• Criminal Justice is founded on stereotyped conception of the criminal that allows for the condemnation and rejection of those identified as offenders 

• Confronted by condemnation and being labeled an evil person, it may be difficult for an offender to main a favorable self-image 

The War on Drugs

• Initiated by the Nixon administration in the early 1970’s 

  • “Drug use is public enemy #1”

• Intensified in the early 1980s in response to “drug panic” 

  • Promoted drug problem when it was actually on the decline

  • “Just say no” to drugs lolz 

• Between 1981 and 2001, drug control spending increased from $2 billion to over $18 billion 

  • Despite decline in drug use during the 1980s

• Police officers focused more on poor, non-White communities 

  • Despite evidence that people from all racial groups are equally likely to possess, use and sell drugs 

  • Black neighborhoods and brown neighborhoods specifically 

• Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986

  • Created a 100 to 1 sentencing disparity for crack vs. power cocaine possession 

  • 5 yr minimum for anything more than 5gms of crack and 500 grams of powder cocaine

  • Reduced to 18 to 1 by 2010 Fair Sentencing Act 

• People of color more likely to use crack cocaine than powder cocaine 

  • White people love powder cocaine 

• 80% of those imprisoned under Anti-Drug Abuse Act were Black 

Current Drug Use Trends 

• 2020 National Survey on Drug Use and Health 

  • 37.3 million people had used illicit drugs in past month (age 12 and over) 

    • Highest among 18-25 year olds (23.9%) 

  • Marijuana most commonly used 

    • Daily use increasing: 6% in 2012; 8% in 2017; 11% in 2022 (among 19 to 30-year-olds) 

  • Misuse of prescription pain relievers ranks 2nd 

    • Opioid epidemic accounts for much of this Over 84k opioid-related overdose deaths on 2011

The Drug-Crime Link 

• Drug-Defined Crimes: involve the sale and/or possession of an illegal substance

• Drug-Related Crimes: involve violent behaviors induced by the effects of a drug or illegal activity that is motivated by continued drug use 

• Crimes Associated with a “drug-using lifestyle”: involve illegal activities that result from the higher likelihood that one does not participate in the legitimate economy and the tendency to be exposed to situations that encourage crime 

  • “A life orientation with an emphasis on short-term goals supported by illegal activities. Opportunities to offend resulting from contacts with offenders and illegal markets. Criminal skills learned from others” - U.S. Department of Justice 

• General Public Perspective: Drugs and Crime are inseparable 

• Criminological Perspective: A clear-cut cause-and-effect relationship is hard to identify

• Nordstrom and Dackis (2011) 

1. Drug use and criminal behavior have a common cause 

2. Drug use influences criminal behavior by either disinhibiting behavior or creating the need to finance a drug habit 

3. Deviance increases the likelihood of future drug use 

• Research on drug addiction and crime reveals a lot of variation among drug users in terms of non-drug crimes 

The Tripartite Conceptual Framework (Goldstein 1985) 

• Drugs and violence are related in three ways: 

1. Psychopharmacological Violence: The effects of drug use may cause individuals to engage in violent behavior 

2. Economically Compulsive Violence: Some drug users engage in violent crimes to support their habit

3. Systematic Violence: violence is associated with the system of drug distribution and use 

Modern Drug Policies/Programs (Interdiction/Eradication/Drug Treatment Court)

• Interdiction:The various steps implemented to interrupt illicit drug trafficking 

  • Multi-step process, monitoring, disruption, arrest, prosecution, incarceration etc,

  • Trafficking→ moving/selling 

  • Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 established the High Intensity Drug Trafficking Areas (HIDTA) program 

    • Focuses on reducing trafficking drugs in US by information and intelligence sharing between agencies, share resources and strategies 

• Eradication: the physical destruction of illicit drugs 

  • Mechanical or chemical destruction 

  • Focuses on heroin poppy, cocoa bush for coke, and cannabis plant for marijuana 

  • Lots of these start in other countries

  • Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) 

    • Provides training, equipment, and support for the eradication of drugs 

• Drug Treatment Court: established in an effort to address the increasing number of drug offenders clogging the criminal justice system

  • Collaboration between justice officials and treatment professionals

  • Individuals who participate can have charges dismissed, get help with employment, get their kids custody back 

  • Expedited case processing; outpatient treatment; supportive services; mandatory drug testing; intensive supervision 

  • Research on drug courts supports life course history 

    • Shows as a turning point in someones life

Modern Drug Policies/Programs (Maintenance/Decriminalization/Harm Reduction Policies)

• Maintenance and Decriminalization: advocates for the accessibility of drugs through governmental regulation; supports the end of using criminal sanctions to address individual drug use 

  • Regulation, distribution, legal age laws

  • Most often advocated for marijuana use, proposed for other/all drugs 

  • Pros: 

    • Law enforcement can be re-allocated to other areas of crime control 

    • Resources can be shifted away from drug law enforcement to drug prevention education and drug treatment 

    • Would lead to a reduction in secondary crime (drug-related crime)

    • Crimincal organizations would be weakened 

    • Intravenous drug users would be at a much lower risk for contracting HIV or hepatitis, because each user would have access to their own hypodermic kit 

  • Cons: 

    • Legalizing drugs like cocaine amphetamines, and herion for adults might make them more available to children 

    • More people would be tempted to try legalized controlled substances, which could result in an increase in addiction

      • More drug abuse related social problems 

    • Legalizing dangerous drugs may reduce the incentive for individuals suffering from addiction to enter drug treatment or pursue a drug-free lifestyle

• Harm Reduction Policies: Attempt to incorporate a public health approach to reduce the risks and harms associated with illegal drug approach 

  • Provision of sterile injection equipment 

  • Outreach and education efforts 

  • Substitution therapies like methadone and supervised injection facilities 

  • Those in favor of needle exchange programs argue: 

    • Intravenous drug use is inevitable, so best thing do to is reduce risks associated to use 

  • Those opposed to need exchange programs argue: 

    • Encourages intravenous drug use

Public Order Crimes “Street Crimes”

• Public Order Crimes: Acts that are criminalized because they disrupt or conflict with commonly shared norms, customs, and values

  • E.g.: drug crimes; prostitution; disorderly conduct; public intoxication; loitering

• Vice Crimes: Crimes that are in conflict with widely held moral beliefs and values 

  • “Crimes against morality”

  • E.g.: Drug crimes; Prostitution; Gambling: Obscenity