RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

psychology

the scientific study of mental processes and behavior

confirmation bias

People tend to look for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms what they already believe → “i totally knew that was gonna happen"

hindsight bias

People believe that they knew something was going to happen, when they actually didn’t -→ telling yourself that you knew that question was going to be on the test and that when you should have studied it, when you really didn’t.

overconfidence

When people have too much faith in their own judgements, thinking they more than they actually do

empirical evidence

Refers to information that is obtained through observation, experimentation, or measurement. Gathered through scientific methods rather than assumptions.

the scientific method

(in psychology), making observations, forming a hypothesis, conducting experiments/studies, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions based on evidence.

hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study.

falsifiable

A statement that can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation.

peer review

A process where research articles and studies are evaluated by experts in the field before they are published in academic journals

replication

The process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed.

reliability

A measure or test is considered to be this if it produces constant results when administered repeatedly under similar conditions

validity

The extent to which a research study/measurement tool accurately measures what it intends to measure.

The American Psychological Association (APA)

A leading professional organization dedicated to advancing in the field of psychology and promoting the application of psychological knowledge to improve human welfare

quantitative data (numerical)

Number based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments.

Qualitative Data

Gives us deeper insight in specific topics

Likert Scales

A measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess people’s attitudes, opinions, or perceptions

Structured Interviews

• Allows for consistent data collection and facilitates comparisons across participants

• Predetermined questions

• Allows for consistent data collection and facilitates comparisons across participants

Survey Techniques

Research method in psychology used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures. Can yield both quantitative and qualitative data, depending on the nature of the questions

Wording Effect

Subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents’ interpretations and responds

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by others or conforms to social norms, rather than providing honest or accurate answers

Naturalistic Observation

Where researchers observe and record behavior in real world settings without intervention or manipulation

Case Study

Research method in psychology that involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon

Correlational Research

Examines the relationship between 2 or more variables (without manipulating the variables!) Allows to collect insight on behavior

Third Variable Problem

The possibility that a third, unmeasured variable that may be influencing the relationship between the 2 variables

Scatterplot

Visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between 2 variables

Correlational Coefficient

Statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between the 2 variables.

• Stronger: predictable

• Weaker: less predictable

No Correlation

There is no observable relationship between 2 variables

Positive Correlation

Variables moving in the same direction

Negative Correlation

Variables moving in opposite directions

Experimental Method

Research technique used to investigate cause and effect relationships between variable

Independent Variable

The variable that is changed (manipulated)

Dependent Variable

The variable that is observed/measured for changes in an experiment (measure)

Confounding Variable

Variable that wasn’t accounted for or controlled in the study, but still affects the results. Can affect/distort your results

Operational Definition

Specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study.

Experimental Group

Exposed to the independent variable

Control Group

Not exposed to the independent variable

Random Assignment

Research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly. Adds validity to your data.

Placebo Effect

Individuals experience improvement in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving a beneficial treatment rather than due to any active ingredient or physiological measurement

Experimenter Bias

The researchers’ expectations/beliefs affect the reliability of the overall study

Single-Blind Study

Unaware of experimental or control group (but researchers do know who’s in which group)

Double-Blind Study

Both researchers and participants don’t know who’s in the control or experimental groups

Placebo Condition

Giving the placebo to 1 group and the real thing to another group, typically given to control group

Sample

Subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study

Representative Sample

Accurately reflects demographics, characteristics, and diversity

Random Sample

Ensures that each participant in the study has an equal opportunity to be included

Sample Bias

Sample that is not representative of the larger population

Generalizability

Extent to which research findings obtained from a study or find can be applied to a larger population

Statistics

A large amount of data can be collected in research studies. Tool to turn data into information

Descriptive Stimulus

Numerical measures used to summarize and describe details in data

Inferential Statistics

Using data from a sample to make references or predictions about a larger population

Measures of Central Tendency

Used to describe central/average values for a data set

Mean

Average (add all of the values, then divide by the number of different values you have)

Median

Middle (line up all values in ascending order, then find the middle number)

Mode

Most frequently occurring number in a data set

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set

Normal Curve or Bell Curve

The majority of the data falls near the center, or mean, of the distribution, with progressively fewer values occurring farther away from the mean in both directions.

Regression to the Mean

When extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again. This happens because extreme scores are often due to temporary factors, not lasting characteristics

Positive Skew

The majority of the data is clustered towards the left side

Negative Skew

The majority of the data is clustered towards the right side

Standard Deviation

Way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group

• Small = close to mean

• Large = spread far apart

1 Derivative ± The Mean

68%

2 Derivatives ± The Mean

95%

Percentile Rank

Indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal or below a particular value

90th Percentile

Only 10% of test takers are better than you

Bimodal Distribution

Type of data distribution in which there are 2 distinct peaks or high points on a histogram or frequency distribution curve

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that observed results in a research study are not due to chance

Effect Size

• Large: indicates a substancial difference or relationship, suggesting that the independent variable has a considerable impact on the dependent variable

• Small: small difference/relationship, independent variable does not have a considerable impact on the dependent variable

Meta Analysis

The statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants

Protect Participants from Harm

Emphasizes the obligation of researchers to minimize risks and ensure the well-being of research participants throughout the study process

Informed Consent

The process through which individuals voluntarily agree to participate in before their involvement in the study

Informed Assent

Similar to informed consent but specifically applies to research involving children or individuals who may have limited decision-making capacity, such as those with cognitive impairments or developmental disabilities

Confidentiality

Requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with the utmost discretion and confidentiality

Deception

In psychology, _________ may involve misleading participants about the true purpose/nature of the study, the procedures involved, or the expected outcomes. Must be justified by scientific or ethical reasons

Confederates

Individuals who are part of a research study but are actually working in collaboration with the researcher and are aware of the true purpose of the study

Debriefing

Providing participants with comprehensive information about the true nature, procedure, and purpose of a research study immediately after