atoms, ions, and chemical composition

what is an atom

smallest particle still characterizing a chemical element

what is an electron

negative charge; size so small that it’s unmeasurable

what is a proton

positive charged; 1836x bigger than electrons

what are neutrons

have no charge; same size as protons

what is atomic mass

the sum of protons and neutrons in an atom

what is atomic number

the number of protons in an atom

what are isotopes

element(s) with the same number of protons (atomic number) but have different number of neutrons; different mass numbers

what are the three types of chemical bonding

• covalent bond

• ionic bond

• hydrogen bond

what is a covalent bond

one or more pairs of electrons are shared by two atoms

what is an ionic bond

bond in which one or more electrons from one atom are removed and attach to another atom, resulting in positive and negative ions which attract each other

what are acids

ionic compounds that break apart in water to form a hydrogen ion (H+)

the strength of an acid is based on the concentration of H+ ions in a solution. thus, the more H+ means what

the stronger the acid

characteristics of acids

• sour

• reacts strongly with metals

• strong acids are dangerous and can burn your skin

what are bases

ionic compounds that break apart to form a negatively charged hydroxide ion (OH-) in water

the greater the concentration of OH- ions, the what

stronger the base

solutions containing bases are often called

alkaline

characteristics of bases

• bitter

• feel slippery

• strong bases are dangerous and can burn your skin

what is a neutralization reaction

when acids and bases are added to each other, they react to neutralize each other if an equal number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions are present

what is a pH scale

indicator used to figure out the strength of an acid or base spanning from 0 to 14

a pH of 7 is

neutral

any pH greater than 7 is considered a

base

any pH lower than 7 is considered an

acid

what is galactosemia

an inherited autosomal recessive trait that impacts the way galactose is broken down, due to the lack of the enzyme galactose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase; type of carbohydrate metabolism disorder

clinical significance of galactosemia

liver irritation, kidney failure, ovarian failure, mental retardation, and cataracts in eyes

treatment of galactosemia

restrict galactose and lactose from diet (no milk, no cheese)

function of proteins

1. binding, transport, and storage

2. molecular switching

3. coordinated motion via actin and myosin

4. structural support via collagen

5. immune protection via antibodies

6. generation and transmission of nerve impulses

7. control of growth and differentiation; ex. insulin, thyroid stimulating hormone

what is marasmus

condition that occurs if protein and caloric intake are both inadequate; energy deficiency

clinical significance of marasmus

• stoppage of growth, extreme muscle loss, weakness

• dry skin, loose skin folds hanging over the gluti, axillae, etc.

• drastic loss of adipose tissue from normal areas of fat deposits

• the affected are often fretful, irritable, and very hungry

• may be alternate bands of pigmented and depigmented hair

• flaky paint appearance of skin due to peeling

what is lipid disorder

high blood cholesterol and triglycerides; too many fatty substance in blood

what is atherosclerosis

condition where fatty acids collect along wall of arteries. eventually the fatty material thickens, hardens, and may eventually block the arteries

if arteries become narrow due to plaque buildup, what happens

blood flow to heart slows down or stops, causing chest pain, shortness of breath, heart attack, etc.

pieces of plaque can break apart and move through the bloodstream. if the clot/piece moves into the heart, lungs, or brain, it can cause…

stroke, heart attack, or pulmonary embolism

what are ketone bodies

three water soluble compounds that are produced as by-products when fatty acids are broken down for energy; used as a source of energy in the heart and brain

three ketone bodies are…

• acetoacetate

• beta-hydroxybutyrate

• acetone

what is ketoacidosis

when large amounts of ketone bodies accumulate such that the body’s pH is lowered to dangerously acidic levels

what is type 1 diabetes

• type of autoimmune disease where antibodies destroys beta cells in pancreas leading to insulin deficiency. this can cause hyperglycemia and deficiency of ATP production by target cells

• glucose in blood vessels causes vasculopathy in which nerves can’t recieve glucose leading to neuropathy which leads to destruction of nerves

what can increase the risk of glucose and ketone buildup

stress and illness

symptoms of glucose and ketone-body overload include

• thirst, frequent urination

• dehydration

• nausea, vomiting

• heavy breathing

• dilation of pupils and confusion

• breath odor resembling the smell of fruit

treatment of glucose and ketone-body overload

insulin and intravenous fluids can restore normal levels of blood sugar and end ketoacidosis and ketonuria

steroid is from

cholesterol

role of prostaglandins

• cause constriction/dilatation in vascular smooth muscle cells

• sensitize spinal neurons to pain

• constrict smooth muscle

• regulate inflammatory mediation

• regulate calcium movement

• regulate hormone regulation

• control cell growth

what is type 2 diabetes and its treatment

insulin receptor becomes resistant to insulin hormone; treatment includes lifestyle changes supplemented with metformin to decrease blood glucose levels (BGL)

changes in hormone levels increase risk for

gestational diabetes; treated w/ changes in diet to control BGL

prostaglandins act as

vasodilators, vasoconstrictors, or can increase in menstruation which may explain the cause of pain. some important for erection; some sued for erectile dysfunction; can cause dilation of cervix during delivery of pregnancy. PGE 2 can cause irritation of temperature center located in anterior hypothalamus which can cause fever