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Surface Anatomy

Study of the body’s external features and landmarks.

Axial Part of the Body

The central part of the body, including the head, neck, and trunk.

Appendicular Part of the Body

The limbs and the structures that attach the limbs to the axial body.

Anatomical Position

Standing upright, facing forward, feet slightly separated, arms at the sides, and palms facing forward.

Supine

Lying face upward.

Prone

Lying face downward.

Sagittal Plane

Divides the body into left and right portions.

Median Plane

A sagittal plane that runs directly down the body’s midline.

Frontal (Coronal) Plane

Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.

Transverse (Horizontal/Cross) Plane

Divides the body into superior and inferior sections.

Oblique Plane

A cut made at an angle other than a right angle.

Longitudinal Section

A cut made along the length of an organ.

Transverse (Cross) Section of an Organ

A cut made at a right angle to the length of an organ.

Directional Terms

Words used to describe where one body structure is located compared with another.

Superior

A structure located above another structure; closer to the head.

Inferior

A structure located below another structure; farther from the head.

Cephalic

Closer to the head than another structure; usually means the same thing as superior.

Caudal

Closer to the tail/lower end of the body than another structure; usually means the same thing as inferior.

Anterior

Toward the front of the body.

Posterior

Toward the back of the body.

Ventral

Toward the belly/front of the body; synonymous with anterior.

Dorsal

Toward the back of the body; synonymous with posterior.

Medial

Toward the body’s midline.

Lateral

Away from the body’s midline.

Intermediate

Located between a medial and a lateral structure.

Proximal

Closer to the point where a structure attaches to the body.

Distal

Farther from the point where a structure attaches to the body.

Superficial

Toward or on the body’s surface.

Deep

Away from the body’s surface; more internal.

Ipsilateral

On the same side of the body.

Contralateral

On the opposite side of the body.

Visceral

Describes the inner layer associated with an organ.

Parietal

Describes the outer layer associated with a body cavity.

Afferent

Moving toward the brain/CNS.

Efferent

Moving away from the brain/CNS.

Right

Toward the right side of the body.

Left

Toward the left side of the body.

Dorsal Body Cavity

The body cavity that contains the brain and spinal cord.

Cranial Cavity

The part of the dorsal body cavity that contains the brain; protected by the skull.

Vertebral Cavity

The part of the dorsal body cavity that contains the spinal cord; protected by the spine.

Ventral Body Cavity

The body cavity containing most of the body’s viscera/organs.

Thoracic Cavity

The ventral cavity in the chest; protected by the ribcage.

Mediastinum

The midline region of the thoracic cavity containing the heart, some major blood vessels, thymus, trachea, and esophagus.

Pleural Cavities

The two cavities that each surround a lung; located on the sides of the mediastinum.

Pericardial Cavity

The cavity surrounding the heart; located inside the mediastinum.

Abdominopelvic Cavity

The ventral cavity below the diaphragm; divided into abdominal and pelvic cavities.

Abdominal Cavity

Contains many digestive organs, including the stomach, small intestine, beginning of the large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys; has little bony protection.

Pelvic Cavity

Contains the urinary bladder, urethra, sigmoid colon, rectum, and reproductive organs; located inside the bony pelvis.

Body Cavities

Internal spaces in the body that contain and protect organs.

Serous Membranes (Serosa)

Double-layered membranes that cover organs and line closed ventral body cavities.

Visceral Layer

The inner layer of a serous membrane that directly covers an organ.

Parietal Layer

The outer layer of a serous membrane that lines the cavity wall.

Serous Cavity

The space between the visceral and parietal layers that contains lubricating serous fluid.

Serous Fluid

Lubricating fluid between the visceral and parietal layers of a serous membrane.

Pleura

The serous membrane that surrounds the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity; contains pleural fluid.

Pericardium

The serous membrane surrounding the heart.

Peritoneum

The serous membrane surrounding many abdominal organs and lining the abdominopelvic cavity.

Mesentery

A double-folded part of the visceral peritoneum attached to parts of the posterior abdominopelvic wall.

Function of the Mesentery

Provides a pathway for nerves and blood vessels to reach digestive organs.

Retroperitoneal

Located behind the peritoneum; includes the kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands, part of the pancreas, parts of the large intestine, and urinary bladder.

Abdominal Quadrants

Four sections used to describe locations within the abdomen: right upper, left upper, right lower, and left lower quadrants.

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

The upper-right section of the abdomen.

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

The upper-left section of the abdomen.

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

The lower-right section of the abdomen.

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

The lower-left section of the abdomen.

Abdominal Regions

Nine sections used to describe more specific locations within the abdomen.

Body Systems

Groups of organs that work together to perform specific functions in the body.

Integumentary System

Includes the skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands; protects the body, regulates temperature, prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D.

Skeletal System

Includes bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints; supports and protects the body, allows movement, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and fat.

Muscular System

Includes muscles attached to the skeleton by tendons; produces movement, maintains posture, and produces body heat.

Nervous System

Includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors; detects sensations and controls movement, physiological processes, and intellectual functions.

Endocrine System

Includes hormone-secreting glands such as the pituitary; regulates metabolism, growth, reproduction, and other body functions.

Lymphatic System

Removes foreign substances, helps fight disease, maintains tissue-fluid balance, and absorbs fats from the digestive tract.

Respiratory System

Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and air and helps regulate blood pH; includes the lungs and respiratory passages.

Digestive System

Breaks down food mechanically and chemically, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates solid wastes.

Urinary System

Removes waste from the blood and regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water balance.

Female Reproductive System

Produces oocytes, is the site of fertilization and fetal development, produces milk, and produces hormones involved in sexual functions and behaviors.

Male Reproductive System

Produces and transfers sperm to the female and produces hormones involved in sexual functions and behaviors.

Cardiovascular System

Transports nutrients, wastes, gases, and hormones; helps with immune responses and temperature regulation.

Simple Squamous Epithelium — Identification

Very thin, flat, irregularly shaped cells; forms the thinnest possible tissue sheet.

Simple Squamous Epithelium — Function

Works mainly as a filter or exchange membrane.

Simple Squamous Epithelium — Location

Found in capillary walls and larger blood vessels, kidney glomeruli, pericardial/pleural/peritoneal membranes, and lung alveoli.

Endothelium

Simple squamous epithelium lining capillary walls and larger blood vessels.

Mesothelium

Simple squamous epithelium found in the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal membranes.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium — Function

Secretion.

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium — Location

Most glands and kidney tubules.

Simple Columnar Epithelium — Function

Complex absorption or secretion.

Simple Columnar Epithelium — Location

Lining of the stomach, small intestine, and Fallopian tubes.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium — Identification

Multiple layers with thin, flat squamous cells at the surface and thicker, more cuboidal cells in the lower layers.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium — Function

Protects against abrasion.

Stratified Squamous Epithelium — Location

Surface of the skin, lining of the oral cavity and esophagus, and lining of the vagina.

Transitional Epithelium — Identification

Multiple layers with plump, rounded, dome-shaped surface cells when relaxed; the surface cells flatten when the tissue is stretched.

Ciliated Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium — Identification

Actually one layer because every cell touches the basement membrane, but it looks like multiple layers because the cells are different sizes; has nuclei at different heights, cilia, and goblet cells.

Apical Surface

The exposed/free surface of epithelial tissue.

Avascular

Without blood vessels; epithelial tissue gets materials by diffusion from the underlying connective tissue.

Basal Surface

The anchored surface of epithelial tissue that rests on the basement membrane.

Basement Membrane

A layer that connects the basal layer of epithelial cells to the underlying tissue; blood vessels do not penetrate it.

Cilia

Tiny hair-like structures that beat to move substances/secretions across a cell surface.

Goblet Cells

Cells that produce and secrete mucus.

Mitosis

Cell division used to make new cells; epithelial tissue uses mitosis to replace damaged cells.