PSYC1001: SOCIAL

Social Psychology

The study of how people change attitudes and behaviors.

Social Cognition

Process by which people select, interpret, and remember social information.

Social Perception

Process by which people come to understand and categorize the behaviors of others.

Social Interaction

Process by which people interact with each other.

Person Perspective

Features or characteristics that individuals bring into social situations.

Situational Perspective

Environmental events or circumstances outside the person.

Interactionist Perspective

The interaction between the person and the situation.

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to help in the presence of others than when alone.

Attribution Theory

We tend to give a causal explanation for someone's behavior, often crediting either internal dispositions or external situations.

Internal Attribution

Explaining behavior as due to dispositional factors (personality/internal situations).

External Attribution

Explaining behavior as due to situational factors.

Covariation Model

A model that explains how consistency, consensus, and distinctiveness information inform attributional explanations for behavior.

Consistency Information

Does the actor behave the same toward the stimulus in different situations?

Consensus Information

Do other people behave the same toward the stimulus?

Distinctiveness Information

Does the actor behave the same toward different stimuli?

Correspondence Bias

The tendency to infer that traits correspond to behavior.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to over-attribute behavior to personality traits and underestimate situational influences.

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute our own behavior mainly to external causes but the behavior of others mainly to internal causes.

Explicit Attitudes

Conscious, deliberate attitudes that can be measured.

Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious, automatic attitudes that influence behavior.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A test that measures implicit attitudes by assessing response times to paired stimuli.

Cognitive Dissonance

A state of tension experienced after making a decision or being exposed to information that contradicts prior beliefs.

Theory of Reasoned Action

Assumes that behavior is based on rationality and subjective norms.

Theory of Planned Behavior

An extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action that includes perceived behavioral control.

Stereotypes

Generalized beliefs about a group of people.

Prejudice

A preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience.

Discrimination

Unjust treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex.

Self-perception theory

Observes own behaviour

Persuasive communications

Deliberate efforts to change attitudes communicated messages advocating a particular side of an issue, with the intention to change attitudes or behaviours of the recipients

Social categorisation

Overestimate difference between groups; we are lazy ('cognitive misers')

Sociocultural learning

Stereotypes are transmitted through culture and society; knowledge of stereotypes is acquired at a young age

Competition

Competition over scarce resources leads to intergroup hostility and conflict

In-group bias

See our own group as more superior and desirable

Out-group homogeneity

Perceived similarities among out-group members; painted with the same lens 'they all look alike'

Social norms

The expectation a group has for its members regarding acceptable and appropriate attitudes and behaviours

Social roles

A socially defined pattern of behaviour that is expected of a person who is functioning in a given setting

Compliance

A change in behaviour or expressed attitudes consistent with a direct request

Conformity

The tendency for people to adopt the behaviours, attitudes, and values of other members of a reference group

Obedience

Compliance with an authority figure/leader in which the request is perceived as an order or command

Subtle forms of prejudice

Includes subtle racism and benevolent sexism

Informational Social Influence

Uncertainty about the correct response, reliance on others for information, believe others' interpretation is more correct than your own interpretation.

Sherif (1935) - autokinetic effect

Conformity experiments where participants judged how far a light moved, which did not actually move.

Asch (1956) - line studies

On average, participants conformed on 33% of the trials when 100% of confederates gave the same wrong answer.

Factors Affecting Conformity

Ambiguity, need to be accurate, crisis/emergency, unanimity, gender, expertise, status and attractiveness of the group, group size.

Cultural Differences in Conformity

Conformity is higher in collectivist cultures and varies within cultures.

Minority Influence

Processes of social influence in which a numerical or power minority can change the attitudes and behaviours of the majority.

Conversion Effect

Process by which minority influence brings about internal, private change in the attitudes of a majority.

Milgram's Obedience Experiments (1963)

Participants delivered false shocks increasing by 15V each time, with 65% remaining to 450V.

Reasons for Obedience

Informational social influence, normative social influence, lack of time to think, self-justification, loss of responsibility.

Philip Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment (1971)

Experiment where roles of guard and prisoner led to aggression and cruelty, called off after 6 days.

Prosocial Behaviour

Behaving in a way that is good for other people or for society as a whole.

Helping Behaviour

Acts that intentionally benefit someone else.

Altruism

Prosocial behaviours that help others even without apparent personal gain or with potential costs for the helper.

Kin Selection Theory

Biological gene protection when helping relatives, especially in life or death situations.

Reciprocity

Helping others with the expectation of the favour being returned in the future.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura 1977)

Learning by direct experience and vicarious experience (modeling or observational learning).

Social Exchange Theory

Cost-benefit analysis weighing the pros and cons of helping.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

Feelings of empathy for a person in need produce altruistic motivation to help for the sake of the other's welfare.

Egoistic helping

Motivated to get something in return.

Negative-state relief hypothesis

Help in order to feel better about yourself.

Pluralistic ignorance

When individuals look to others and monitor the reactions of other bystanders and conclude that they do not have any need to intervene.

Physical attractiveness

There is consensus that some faces are more attractive than others.

Symmetry

Genetic effectiveness.

Averageness

Mathematical average of facial features.

Familiarity

As you grow more close to someone, they become more attractive.

Mere exposure effect

Feelings towards a person will be polarized depending on the original interaction.

Similarity

Similarity draws people together.

Passionate love

Ecstatic, physiologically arousing, desire for physical contact.

Companionate love

Intimate, affectionate, caring; commitment to the relationship.

Gottman's Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse

Criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling.

Attributions for partner's behaviour

Internal for positive and external for negative behaviours in satisfying relationships.

Gottman's ratio of 5:1

In relationships that stay together, there should be 5 times as many positive interactions as negative.

Negative behaviours impact

Negatives have more ability to inflict pain than positives to heal.

Couples headed for divorce ratio

0.8:1 (positive:negative) ratio.

Gender differences in helping

Women more prone to nurture; men more prone to help when physical strength is required.

Mood influences on helping

Positive moods encourage helping; negative moods like guilt and sadness may also encourage it.

Vigilance in helping

Need to be aware of surroundings to help.

Interpersonal style similarity

Similarity in interpersonal style can draw people together.

Commitment vs. fling

Commitment often involves someone similar; flings may involve someone different.

Stereotyping

involves making generalizations or assumptions about individuals based on characteristics such as race, gender, or religion.

Prejudice

refers to preconceived opinions or attitudes about individuals or groups based on stereotypes or biases

Bias

refers to a tendency or inclination toward a particular perspective or belief

Microaggression

subtle, often unintentional actions or comments that convey hostility or bias toward individuals or groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, or religion

the false consensus effect:

occurs when individuals overestimate the degree to which others share their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours

the bystander effect

refers to the phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when others are present

power hierarchy

involves the organisation of power within a group or society,

altruistic behaviour

characterised by actions that are motivated by a desire to benefit others, even at a cost to oneself