Training Adaptations

overload principle

must be worked at a level above what it is used to in order for training effect to occur

specificity principle

training effect is specific to the muscle fibers involved in the activity and the type of activity

Athletes - specificity principle

Anaerobic training can minimally benefit endurance athlete, and vice versa

General Fitness - Specificity principle

Any aerobic training can improve health and cardiac function

what are aerobic training goals

better oxygen delivery

enhance aerobic capacity in the muscles

what are time or distance techniques

Continuous workouts

Fartlek workout

Interval training

what are lactate level techniques

Recovery, extensive aerobic, intensive aerobic, threshold, VO2max, Anaerobic

example of training ATP-PCr system

100m Sprints - Repetition run at 3 seconds slower than best time

how much time to replenish half of ATP-PCr

20-30 seconds

how much time to have full restoration of ATP- PCr

2-8 minutes

how to increase ATP-PCr system

Repeatedly stimulating the ATP-PCr system increases its capacity

how to keep anaerobic glycolysis to a minimum

keep the working intervals short

duration to train for anaerobic glycolysis

30s - 2 minutes

how do we increase lactic acid tolerance

incomplete recovery periods of 90sec - 3 minutes

anaerobic changes with training: Glycolysis, endurance

increase in hexokinase activity (first step of glycolysis)

Slight increase in PFK

anaerobic changes with training: Glycolysis, resistance training

Studies not as numerous

If hexokinase and PFK change, magnitude is minimal

how do we train aerobic metabolism

Long work bouts that are a portion of the competitive event

what is the pace for training aerobic metabolism

average competition speed or faster

what does recovery look like for training the aerobic metabolism

Recovery time: short

ATP-PCr restoration

Rest or walking recovery is best

how much can vo2 max increase with training

2-50%

what contributes to vo2 max value

genetics and environment

what contributes to the changes of Vo2 max

cardiovascular and muscle changes

what is the only one component of endurance

vo2 max

what increases with endurance training

maximal oxygen uptake

what does not change with endurance training

submaximal oxygen cost

what happens to submaximal workloads with endurance training

become more efficient

how is myoglobin levels changed with aerobic adaptations

concentration increases

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

This is when the other ATP-producing reactions occur without oxygen

What is cytochrome c?

Heme protein found in mitochondria

what is cytochrome-c before training

16

what is cytochrome-c after training

32

what is cytochrome-a

molecular electron carrier involved in oxidative phosphorylation

what is cytochrome amount pre-training

18

what is cytochrome-a amount after training

37

what are the increases of cytochrome causes by

increase in number or size of mitochondria

what kind of training does cytochrome only respond to

aerobic training

why do adaptations to CHO occur

Increase in GLUT 4 # & density, therefore more glucose uptake at rest (insulin)

what are RER values

how much substrate is used

why are low RER values good

we want to burn fat and save glycogen for later

what are metabolic reasons for fat being utilized during endurance exercise

Carnitine palmityl transferase

adaptations of protein

Increased ability to utilize the BCAA leucine

Increased capacity to form alanine and release it from muscle cells and probably use it in gluconeogenesis

what is the result of adaptations of protein

better maintenance of blood glucose

glycogen phosphorylase

High-intensity sprint training consisting of either short (<10 sec) or long (>10 sec) sprint intervals increase activity

Phosphofructokinase

Endurance and sprint training increases enzyme activity

Hydrogen Shuttle Systems (5):

Endurance Training: No changes in skeletal muscle shuttle systems

What happens to the size and number of mitochondria during increased activity?

Size and number of the mitochondria increase (locally)

What effect does increased transport sites have on pyruvate?

Increased movement of pyruvate into mitochondria

Is enzyme activity per unit of mitochondria the same in TR and UNTR individuals?

Yes, enzyme activity per unit of mitochondria is the same in TR and UNTR individuals

result of shuttle systems

enhanced capacity to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

lactate accumulation adaptation

Less accumulation at the same absolute workload than an UNTR individual

Decreased lactate production following training

Less CHO is utilized at an absolute submaximal workload after training

Enzyme activity changes aerobic adaptation

Pyruvate dehydrogenase activity increases

Shifts in LDH isoform

Decreased PFK activity by high [FFA] in the cytoplasm & high levels of citrate

Blunted neurohormonal responses aerobic adaptation

Smaller increase in [epinephrine & norepinephrine] in TR, decreasing glycogenolysis

Aerobic Changes with Training: Lactate Clearance

increase clearance is by endurance training due to increased RD

hydrogen shuttle systems - endurance training

No changes in skeletal muscle shuttle systems

shuttle system- mitochondrial enzyme

Size and number of the mitochondria increase (locally)

More transport sites available -> increased movement of pyruvate into mitochondria

Enzyme activity per unit of mitochondria same in TR and UNTR individuals

what causes greater mitochondrial enzyme function

greater protein content

result of shuttle system

an enhanced capacity to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation

how does training impact lactate accumulation

less accumulation at the same absolute workload

why is there decreased lactate production following training

Less CHO is utilized at an absolute submaximal workload after training

Enzyme activity changes

Pyruvate dehydrogenase activity increases

Shifts in LDH isoform

Decreased PFK activity by high [FFA] in the cytoplasm & high levels of citrate

Blunted neurohormonal responses

smaller increase in [epinephrine & norepinephrine] in TR, decreasing glycogenolysis

what happens to lactate clearance with endurance training

increases due to RD

what is RD

rate of disappearance

what is RD increased by

increases glucogenesis

increased oxidation by type 1 and cardiac muscle cells

increase number of lactate transporters

Muscle composition (biochemical & structural makeup) can be altered

PA - physical activity

Motor neuron innervation

Blood thyroxine levels

function of resistance training

strength, endurance, power

resistance training effect on muscle fibers

Inc. whole muscle CSA, muscle fiber CSA, myofibril protein content

how does connective tissue change with RT

Inc. collagen synthesis & stiffness

neural impact of RT

Inc. motor unit recruitment & synchronization

Dec. golgi tendon organ reflex

metabolic changes to RT

Inc. glycogen, PC, & Creatine phosphokinase (CPK)

hormonal changes to RT

more inconsistent

testosterone and cortisol

responses based on gender for RT

similar response

aging response for RT

Similar, possibly greater gains than younger adults

endurance training in muscular adaptations

No change in strength & power

Inc. endurance

size and structure of muscles due to endurance training

Inc. slow twitch hypertrophy

No change fast twitch hypertrophy

Inc. capillary to muscle fiber ratio

Combination of RT & Aerobic endurance training

Evidence not consistent

general principles for RT

Need overload for increase in strength

Optimal training regimes differ between individuals

range of general reps for training

4-12 repetitions

over how many reps can strength gains decline

more then 15

generally how many RT sets

1-3

how many training days per week

3

specificity for performance

same muscles, same speed of movement

specific to the goals

Strength

Endurance

Power

Hypertrophy

Combination

what is specificity based on

type of contraction, load, muscle group

progressive resistance exercise overload

3 Sets, 10 reps consecutively without rest

1st set: ½ max wt lifted 10x or ½ 10-RM

2nd set: ¾ 10-RM

3rd set: max wt

preparation phase for periodization

High volume, low intensity, plus flexibility and aerobic/anaerobic training

first transition phase

Moderate volume, moderate intensity, plus flexibility and interval aerobic training

Competition phase

Low volume, high intensity, plus short intervals of sport-specific exercises

Second transition phase (active recovery)

Recreational activities, low intensity, different modes

reversibility

all it takes is 1-2 weeks off

what is the first goal of aerobic training

develop functional capacity of the central circulation

what is the second goal of aerobic training?

enhance aerobic capacity of the specific muscles

how much creatine pre-training

11

how much creatine post-training

15

how much ATP pre-training

5

how much ATP post-training

6

what are examples of training anaerobic glycolysis

5 repetitions of 400 m in 1:20, with a recovery of 2:40

submaximal workload changes

O2 cost is the same before and after the training, assuming that no skill is involved where efficiency would change

what is myoglobin

A protein that holds a reserve supply of oxygen in muscle cells