Radical Reformers — Aims, Tactics and Impact of Extra-Parliamentary Protest

When was the French Revolution?

1789

What happened during the French Revolution?

Over 3 years, wide-ranging series of reforms reduced power of monarchy, abolished feudal privileges + many of rights enjoyed by Catholic Church + aristocracy, + proclaimed principles of liberte, egalite + fraternité.

What happened to these revolutionary ideas?

These revolutionary ideas, which challenged v. nature of existing govts + regimes, spread rapidly throughout Europe.

What did thinkers take influence from?

In Britain, while there was no serious threat to existence of Hanoverian monarchy itself, many liberal + radical thinkers took heart from events in France.

What were debates and discussions encouraged by?

Political debates and discussions in London and throughout provinces were encouraged by new political organisations and radical national and local newspapers.

What did Burke write?

Standard bearer for conservative forces in Britain was Burke, whose Reflections on Revolution in France was comprehensive assault on revolution, and gloomy prediction that France would ultimately degenerate into chaos.

How were radicals more optimistic?

Radicals, on other hand, were more optimistic. Some hoped events in France would encourage demands for reform in Britain, especially parliamentary reform.

What did Paine and Spence hope?

Few, notably Paine and Thomas Spence, hoped Britain would follow French example with establishment of republic + universal male suffrage.

What did most politicians give cautious welcome to?

• Most politicians gave cautious welcome to F. Revolution.

• They expected it would develop along lines of Revolution of 1688-89, which had established constitutional monarchy in Britain under William + Mary.

• Hopes dashed as events in France became more violent, especially after Sept. Massacres of 1792 + execution of Louis XVI in 1793.

What did Pitt’s govt. fear?

Pitt's govt feared calls for reform in Britain might lead to outbreaks of rebellion on French lines, + throughout 1790s his govt took strong action, supported by king + parliament, against radicals + their activities.

What became more important from 1793?

Maintenance of domestic stability became even more important from 1793, when war broke out between Britain + France.

What did war encourage the development of?

War encouraged development of strong current of nationalist sentiment in Britain, + widespread patriotic feelings supported suppression of radical activities.

How did the govt. impose domestic harmony ?

By 1799, govt. had imposed domestic harmony by means such as suspension of habeas corpus, attacks on freedom of press, + banning of large-scale meetings + demonstrations.

When did the radical movement reemerge?

Return of peace in 1815, + difficulties of adjusting to peacetime economy, saw reemergence of radical movement that suggested real threat of revolution.

Where was post war unrest?

• Radicalism of 1790s had been centred in London, but post-war unrest was national, + thus more threatening phenomenon.

• Economic + social distress was widespread, + was fertile ground for radical agitation.

What measures did Liverpool’s govt. intro?

1815 - 1819, Liverpool's Tory govt intro. number of measures aimed at maintaining law + order that many contemporaries + later historians condemned as unnecessarily oppressive.

When was the breaking up at St Peter’s Fields?

• Most notorious event in these years was breaking up of huge meeting at St Peter's Fields in Manchester in Aug. 1819, 11 dead + 400 wounded.

• This action, Peterloo Massacre, marked end of years of unrest, as economy gradually revived in 1820s + demands for reform declined.

When was Liverpool’s govt?

Liverpool's govt lasted 1812 - 1827, making him longest-serving PM of 19th century.

What was Liverpool responsible for?

He was responsible for successful ending of wars with France, dealing with post-war unrest + encouraging growing prosperity during 1820s.

What can Liverpool’s leadership skills be inferred from?

His leadership skills may be inferred by fact that, within 3 years of resignation, his party was bitterly split over religious + reform issues, which allowed Whigs to take office in 1830.

When did James II flee?

1688, Stuart king, James II, abandoned throne + fled country.

Who was the crown offered to?

Parl. offered crown jointly to William, Stadtholder of Netherlands, and wife Mary, daughter of James Il.

When was constitutional monarchy established?

Years 1689-1701, number of laws clarified powers of monarchy + parl. , + established constitutional monarchy in Britain.

What did the success of the American revolution do?

Success of American Rev. + early events of F. Rev contributed to growing interest in pol. affairs among working people, especially skilled working class.

What organisations formed?

Circulation of radical newspapers grew, + several organisations formed that promoted ideas of republicanism + parliamentary reform.

When was the SCI formed?

1780, Major John Cartwright formed Society for Constitutional Information (SCI), organisation that promoted social + pol. reform.

Who were members of the SCI?

Members mostly middle-class industrialists, were interested in discussing pol. affairs, but not prepared to go beyond this into radical activity.

What happened to support for the SCI?

From 1783, support fell as members joined other organisations, ceased to exist after 1795.

Where else were societies established ?

In early 1790s, number of corresponding societies were established in London + in provincial towns, drawing membership from growing ranks of skilled working classes

How did these societies spread their ideas?

These societies spread their pol. ideas through printed pamphlets, + many individuals communicated directly with counterparts in Paris.

When was the LCS founded?

Most important of these new organisations was London Corresponding Society (LCS), founded 1792 by shoemaker, Thomas Hardy, + supported by skilled craftsmen in London.

Who was Hardy influenced by?

Hardy was strongly influenced by SCI, + thus LCS promoted twin causes of universal suffrage + annual parls.

What did members of the LCS want?

Some members keen on adopting issues of social + pol. reform, but + and other leaders reluctant to champion these causes, arguing these reforms would come about as natural consequence of parl. reform.

What did the LCS promote?

LCS worked to promote pol. education of members by publishing pamphlets promoting views.

What was the LCS’s pamphlet?

Their aims were set out in key pamphlet issued in Nov. 1792, Address of the London Corresponding Society to other Societies of Great Britain.

What did the LCS’s pamphlet explain?

Explained basic aims, + made clear their methods would be peaceful: intended to petition parl. rather than organise mass, + potentially violent, demonstrations.

What did the organisation of the LCS mark?

Organisation of LCS marked new departure for radical groups.

What did the LCS not limit?

• Society never tried to limit its membership to any particular class.

• Adopted slogan that ‘our membership be unlimited', + charged v. low subscription fee.

Why were the local associations small?

Kept size of local associations deliberately small to enable all of its members to take part in discussions & debates.

What worried Pitt about the LCS?

Pitt worried by structure of LCS. He believed society was not so much pol. organisation, but had potential to become mil. body.

What did govt. spies do to the LCS?

Govt spies infiltrated society, but reported that LCS operated strictly within law.

What was there backlash from?

Inevitably, was backlash from conservative groups against LCS + other radical organisations, especially as events in France moved from moderate position of 1789 into more extreme activity 1791-93.

What other type of societies were created?

A number of loyalist societies were established, whose members viewed radicals as being disloyal to both king + country.

When was the Association for Preserving Liberty + Property against Republicans + Levellers formed?

Association for Preserving Liberty + Property against Republicans + Levellers was formed in 1792, + network of these organisations grew up nationally.

What was association membership?

While corresponding societies were largely supported by skilled workers, association membership was drawn almost exclusively from middle classes.

What did the govt. think of the association movement?

Govt. welcomed Association movement & played its part by using loyalist Press to promote patriotic propaganda, by giving secret help to associations, & by taking action against reformers.

What did the landed and propertied classes come to believe?

By early 1790s, landed + propertied classes, influenced by Burke + other conservative writers, + by growth of radical movements, came to believe that general national conspiracy was being organised that intended social + pol. rev.

Who formed associations?

Following promptings from press, many local landowners + others began to form associations, with sole intention of providing support for govt whenever it was needed.

What was the association movement the first part of?

Association movement was 1st part of process of creating united loyalist front against radicalism.

What did association members also serve as?

In years to 1815, many of its members also served as armed volunteers, ready to take action against internal or external enemies.

What did the govt. do to British radicalism?

Govt's determination to destroy reforming activity, + growth of national feeling during Napoleonic War has effectively silenced British radicalism in early years of the 19th century.

What challenges did Liverpool face?

However, peace abroad not accompanied by tranquility at home, + from 1815 Lord Liverpool's govt faced number of challenges to its authority.

What did London remain?

Compared with other parts of country, London had remained relatively quiet after 1815.

What were more radical groups divided on?

More extreme radical groups were divided on aims + methods, while support was growing for moderate reforming programme of middle-class leaders such as Sir Francis Burdett.

When was the spa fields meeting ?

1816

Who was Burdett?

Burdett was radical MP who was long-time supporter of reforms.

What did Burdett support?

During parliamentary career supported many measures, such as parl. reform, end to Catholic disabilities, + abolition of corporal punishment in armed forces.

What did Burdett become?

Though widely respected for radicalism for many years, became far more conservative in views in 1830s + 1840s.

What were reform meetings in London like?

Reform meetings in London during early months of 1816 proved uncontroversial, + concerned as much with relief of poor as with pol. reform.

What were followers of Spence unhappy with?

Followers of Thomas Spence unhappy with such moderate stance, + planned mass meeting in east London, hoped would lead to violent rioting + disorder.

Who was spence?

Spence was self -taught radical who developed own political ideas, which were revolutionary in implications.

What did Spence call for?

Called for abolition of monarchy + aristocracy, +, uniquely for time, universal suffrage for men + women.

What was Spence’s message?

Message was influential one, + favoured active revolution on French model to overthrow entire social + political order.

When did Spence die?

Spence died 1814, but influence outlived him.

When was the Spencean Philanthropist Society formed?

Spencean Philanthropist Society was formed in 1815.

What did the Spencean Philanthropist Society members do?

Its members were to play maj. role in rev. activity in London until 1820, especially during Spa Fields riot of 1816.

What radical was invited to 1st Spa Fields?

Radical leader + speaker, Henry 'Orator' Hunt, was invited to address meeting called to take place at Spa Fields in east London in Nov.

How big was the crowd at 1st spa fields?

Crowd of 10,000 people was largest gathering seen in London since anti-Catholic Gordon riots of 1780.

What was the aim of 1st spa fields?

Meeting's aim was not contentious: Hunt was asked to present petition to Prince Regent, urging him to reform parl.

What did Hunt say in his speech?

In speech, Hunt championed moral force behind petition, but came dangerously close to suggesting use of physical force if petitioners' demands not met.

When was a 2nd spa fields organised?

Almost inevitably, Hunt not received by Prince Regent, + 2nd protest meeting called for 2nd Dec.

Who was Hunt pre-empted by?

Once again Hunt due to speak, but he was pre-empted by Spenceans who stirred up sections of crowd + urged them to take course of direct action.

What did people who leave the meeting do?

• Number of people left meeting, looted number of gunsmiths, + set off to seize Tower of London + Royal Exchange.

• Had they been successful, might have attempted coup against govt, but quick action of Lord Mayor of London + his force of constables dispersed rioters and arrested leader.

What was the trial of ringleaders?

Trial of ringleaders 1817 exposed role of govt informers + spies in Spa Fields affair.

What was the defence able to prove?

• Defence was able to prove govt. informer named Castle had encouraged riot, + that he had duped ringleaders into taking extreme action.

• In light of this revelation, jury acquitted all defendants.

What difficulty did spa fields expose?

• Spa Fields exposed many of difficulties faced by radical reformers in post-war years.

• Use of govt spies + agents provocateurs made it almost impossible to outwit forces of order, who were usually well informed about intended courses of action.

What made uniform action impossible ?

Division between those who supported peaceful protest + others who tended towards violence made unified action impossible.

What did Leeds Mercury condemn?

Leeds Mercury, strong supporter of radicals, condemned Spa Fields riot without reservation.

What were the Gordon riots?

Riots organised by Protestant groups against measures to reduce official discrimination against Catholics.

How many people took part in the Gordon riots?

~ 50,000 people took part, + inflicted widespread destruction in London.

What did the Gordon riots damage?

Riots damaged Britain's reputation abroad + made it difficult for govt to secure European allies in American War of Independence.

What is an agent provocateur ?

• In absence of national police force, govt relied on large + effective spy network that provided Home Office with info about radical activity.

• Agents provocateurs were govt agents who infiltrated radical groups in order to persuade members to break law.

What was the Leeds Mercury?

Leeds Mercury was 1 of most influential provincial newspapers of its day.

Who was the editor of the Leeds Mercury?

Its editor + proprietor, Edward Baines, was 1 of 1st newspapermen to include pol. editorials as well as news in his paper.

What did Edward Baines campaign for?

Campaigned for several radical causes, such as provision of parl. seats for industrial towns.

Who was Baines an opponent of?

However, he was staunch opponent of universal suffrage + of factory legislation aimed at improving working conditions for adults + children.

What was Bamford correct in believing?

Bamford was correct in belief that govt agents had infiltrated radical movements + were feeding info about their intentions back to London.

What was the Committee of Secrecy?

• Liverpool's govt had established Committee of Secrecy, which operated substantial network of spies.

• Info that they gathered enabled them to be prepared for outbreaks of violence or rebellious activity.

What was the significance of spies highlighted by?

Sig. of spies was highlighted by Pentridge (Pentrich) rising of 1817.

When was the Pentridge Rising ?

1817

When were meetings held in Pentridge?

In early months of 1817, number of revolutionary activists held meetings in Pentridge, village in Derbyshire, where they discussed plans for insurrection.

When did Oliver join?

In May, they were joined by Londoner who called himself Oliver.

What did Oliver persuade the meeting of?

• Oliver persuaded meeting that radicals in London were preparing uprising in capital for 9 June, which would be supported by similar actions throughout country.

• None of this was true.

Who was Oliver actually?

• Oliver was in fact former convict called Richards, + was in pay of Lord Sidmouth, Home Secretary.

• Not only did he spy on radical groups, but in this instance he acted as agent provocateur, intending to lead Pentridge activists into illegal + treasonable activities.

What were activists convinced by?

Activists were convinced by Oliver's reports

When did men go to Nottingham?

On 9 June their leader, Jeremiah Brandreth, led 300 men towards Nottingham, intending to seize city.

What did spies prove to be?

Once again, system of spies proved effective.

Where were rebels intercepted?

Rebels were intercepted by regiment of soldiers before they could reach city: many men fled, but 80 were arrested.

What did the Leeds Mercury publish on Oliver?

Week after the attempted rising, the Leeds Mercury published a detailed investigation that exposed Oliver's role in the rising.

Who did Baines blame?

Its editor, Edward Baines, blamed the government rather than the activists for the whole affair.