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1607 = Jamestown; divides units 1 and 2 because marks the beginning of English dominion in the colonies
land bridge
migrants from Asia 10,000-40,000 years ago crossed the Bering land bridge and spread from the Arctic Circle to the southern tip of South America
civilizations of South/Central America
all three main civilizations (Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas) developed highly organized societies, traded extensively, and created accurate, science-based calendars; cultivated crops which led to a stable food supply (three sisters farming of beans, squash and maize; also potatoes for the Incas)
civilizations of North America
because of the slow spread of maize cultivation, there were little to no large civilizations; this manifested in socially diverse societies and broad differences in language (almost 20 language families vs. 1 in Europe).
southwest settlements in North America
people lived under caves/in caves in multistoried buildings. above Mesoamerica so maize spread prompted economic growth and irrigation systems as well as complex society (some social hierarchy). drought eventually caused them to decline.
ex) Hohokam, Anasazi, Pueblos, Apache, Navajo
northwest settlements in North America
people lived in permanent longhouses and had a rich diet (hunter-gathering/fishing). mountain ranges isolated the tribes and hindered development.
ex) Chumash, Chinook
Great Basin/Great Plains settlements in North America
due to the dry climate of the Great Basin and Great Plains grasslands, some people developed nomadic lifestyles where they hunted buffalo (food/decor) and lived in teepees (easily assembled/disassembles); others closer to Mesoamerica had permanent settlements with farming (three sisters) and trading. horses later enabled migration and easier hunting.
ex) Shoshone, Sioux
Mississippi River Valley settlements in North America
east of the Mississippi River, people had a rich food supply (hunting, gathering, farming) and established permanent settlements with large earthen mounds.
ex) Adena-Hopewell tribe, Cahokia
northeast settlements in North America
people lived in longhouses based on maternal lineage and combined hunting and farming (had to move to fresh land a lot because farming exhausted land)
ex) Iroquois Confederacy/Haudenosauanee (political union of Seneca, Cayuga, Mohawk, and more tribes)
Atlantic Seaboard settlements in North America
the people of the Atlantic Seaboard/Coastal Plains had a rich source of food (fish) and built timber/bark lodgings along rivers.
European context for exploration and competition
the Renaissance saw a rebirth of classical learning, prompting an outburst of scientific activity and technological advances, including the improvement of inventions like gunpowder or the sailing compass.
Ottomans/Muslims and Protestants threatened the power of the Roman Catholic Church.
after the Reconquista of Spain, Catholic Kings Isabella and Ferdinand funded Columbus’ voyages, signaling power and hope for Catholics.
Roman Catholics (Spain/Portugal) and Protestants (England/Netherlands) wanted to spread their versions of Christianity.
European kingdoms were competing for increased trade with Africa/India/China and the land route to Asia was blocked by the Ottomans, prompting them to find new trade routes.
small kingdoms were uniting, and large empires were fracturing, both into nation-states that depended on trade for revenue and the church to justify their right to trade.
new trade routes in the 15th century
under Prince Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese opened a sea route to Asia around South Africa’s Cape of Good Hope, first reached in 1498 by Vasco da Gama.
Columbus’ initial voyages
after being backed by the Catholic Kings, Columbus sailed from the Canary Islands in 1492 and reached the Bahamas in a month. he gained success and glory when he reached land, but later voyages found little gold, few spices, and no simple path to Asia.
Spanish and Portuguese claims in the Americas
they were the first two countries to claim territories in the Americas. due to disputes, the Pope created a line of demarcation in 1493, granting Spain the lands west of the lines and Portugal the lands east of the line; it was later modified in 1494 with the Treaty of Tordesillas, establishing Portugal’s claim to Brazil.
English claims in the Americas
John Cabot explored the coast of Newfoundland (Canada) in 1497 but religious issues preoccupied the monarchy; they took more interest later in the 1570s, challenging and attacking Spanish ships and settlements. In 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh established a settlement on Roanoke Island that later failed.
French claims in the Americas
sponsored by the French government in 1524, Giovanni da Verrazano sought a northwest passage through the Americas and explored some of the eastern coast; similarly, Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence river extensively. also busy with internal religious conflict (French Wars of Religion), the French did not develop interest in the Americas until later.
the Columbian Exchange
the contact between the distinct cultures resulted in a transfer of plants, animals, and germs across both sides of the Atlantic. new foods transformed Eurasian diets and caused rapid population growth. new crops and technology also entered the Americas, but Natives’ lack of immunity to Eurasian diseases led to rapid population decline.
the rise of capitalism
population growth and new resources in Europe encouraged trade and led to many changes. feudalism, a system of monarchs granting nobles land, declined in favor of capitalism, which placed the control of capital over the control of land.
joint-stock companies
Europeans were eager to gain access to the riches of other parts of the world, but trade voyages were costly and risky. to finance them more safely, joint-stock companies arose, owned by a large number of investors who only risked losing what they invested, lowering the individual risk of investment.
Spanish exploration and conquest
feats like Magellan’s circumnavigation of the globe, Cortes’ conquest of the Aztec Empire, and Pizarro’s conquest of the Incan Empire secured Spain’s initial supremacy on the Americas. conquistadores sent gold back to Spain, making it the richest and most powerful European kingdom and encouraging other nations.
Indian labor and the encomienda system
the Indians that survived disease were incorporated into the Spanish Empire in the encomienda system in which the King granted natives on certain plots of land to Spaniards who prospered from their labor but were expected to care for them.
enslaved African labor and the asiento system
seeing that the Portuguese used African labor on their European plantations, Spain traded with African partners who supplied them with slaves under the asiento system, where colonists had to pay a tax to the King for each slave imported.
the casta system
the Spanish colonies became very ethnically diverse, spurring the development of a caste system to define peoples’ status by their heritage: on top were Spaniards, then levels of people based on the mixture of their heritage, and pure Indian or Black people on the bottom.
European treatment of natives
generally, Europeans viewed Native Americans as inferior and as exploitable for economic gain, religious conversion, and military allyship.
Spanish policy for ruling Native Americans
the Spanish overwhelmingly subjugated Native Americans but scholars debated their status and treatment. this is demonstrated by the Valladolid Debate between Bartolome de Las Casas, a priest who saw Natives as people and pushed for the end of encomienda with the New Laws of 1542, and Juan Gines de Sepulveda, who saw natives as less than humans that benefited from serving Spaniards.
English policy for ruling Native Americans
the English settled in areas with low Native populations and coexisted with them, engaging in trade and the sharing of ideas; however, they later began to threaten their way of life and occupy their land, expelling them rather than subjugating them.
French policy for ruling Native Americans
the French maintained good relations with Native tribes they encountered and established trading posts along the St. Lawrence River where they traded French goods for beaver pelts and furs. they posed less of a threat to the Natives and even helped some fight their enemy tribes (helped Hurons against Iroquois Confederacy).
Native American survival strategies
as European settlements expanded, Natives responded to protect their cultures. some allied with a European power (Mesoamerican tribes who helped Cortes beat the Aztecs) while others migrated west (causing conflict with other tribes).
the role of Africans in America
one of the ways Africans resisted slavery was by maintaining their culture (music, religion, …). they brought musical rhythms/styles that shaped the development of music (ex. banjo) and also brought their experience in growing rice, leading to its importance in Louisiana and South Carolina.
Spanish colonies and settlements
limited resources and Native opposition caused Spanish settlements to develop slowly. missionaries were motivated to counter the influence of Protestantism and wanted to convert Natives.
Juan Ponce de Leon claimed Florida for Spain in 1513 and established a permanent settlement in St. Augustine in 1565 after failure and resistance. little silver/gold, declining native populations, and hurricanes discouraged settlements there.
Spanish colonies arrived in New Mexico/Arizona in 1598 and established Santa Fe in 1610.
between Florida and New Mexico, Texas settlements were established and grew in the early 1700s as Spain resisted French efforts to explore the lower Mississippi River.
responding to the Russians in Alaska, the Spanish settled San Diego in California in 1769. Missions were established by 1784.
French colonies and settlements
there were very little French colonizers. some came as missionaries and others for economic reasons, working in the lucrative fur trade and sometimes marrying Indian women (who services them as guides/translators). French reliance on trade led to the importance of rivers in their colonies: Quebec was first settled on the St. Lawrence River in 1608 and New Orleans was permanently settled by 1718 on the Mississippi basin after previous exploration of the river.
Dutch colonies and settlements
in the seventeenth century, the Netherlands sponsored voyages of exploration and hired Henry Hudson to seek a northwest passage through America to Asia, causing him to discover and explore the Hudson River. he claimed the surrounding area, New Amsterdam, and the Dutch West India Company was given the right to control the region for economic gain. the Dutch colonies consisted of traders with trade networks among Indians likely to settle in trading posts along rivers/coasts.
British colonies and settlements
in the early 1600s, Britain was able to colonize the lands explored by Cabot prior. as England’s population grew, poor and landless families were attracted to opportunities in the Americas, leading to a higher percentage of families and single females in the British colonies interested in families. Starting with Jamestown (1607) and ending with Georgia (1733), 13 distinct colonies developed along the coast, developing regional or sectional differences based on many influences.
types of British colonies
each colony received its authority to operate by a charter granting special privileges from the monarch, which described the relationship between the colony and the crown. corporate colonies were operated by joint-stock companies, royal colonies were under the direct authority of the King, and proprietary colonies were under the authority of individuals granted charters of ownership.
early English colonies: Jamestown/Virginia
in 1607, James I chartered the Virginia Company to found the first permanent English colony, Jamestown. its first settlers suffered from their own mistakes (swampy area = dysentery, malaria; refusal to hunt/farm). good initially came from trade with Natives, but conflicts stopped trade and led to starvation. Under Captain John Smith’s leadership, they survived the first five years. John Rolfe helped the colony develop a popular, profitable variety of tobacco. they also established the headright system, where settlers or people who paid for passage of others to the colony would gain 50 acres of land (a headright), aiding landowners and adding to their indentured servants. by 1624, the economy was collapsing due to disease and conflict, leading James I to revoke the company charter and establish Virginia as a royal colony.
early English colonies: Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay
Separatists/Pilgrims wanted to organize a separate church, migrating to Holland and then America, aboard the Mayflower in 1620 (which contained people with both religious or economic motives). they established Plymouth and were helped by Natives at the first Thanksgiving after the first winter killed half the settlers. strong leaders grew Plymouth to include fish, furs, and lumber in its economy.
later, more moderate dissidents (the reformist Puritans) also sought religious freedom and gained a charter for the Massachusetts Bay company. in 1630, John Winthrop led a thousand Puritans to found Boston and led the Great Migration of English people to the colonies amidst domestic conflict. the Puritans founded several settlements, a mixture of small towns and family farms that relied on a blend of commerce and agriculture.
early English colonies: Maryland
in 1632, Charles I split off part of Virginia and created the colony of Maryland, granting it to Lord Baltimore (George Calvert) and making it the first proprietary colony. after his death. his son Cecil Calvert set about implementing his father’s plan to make it a safe haven for Catholics who established plantations there. they were quickly outnumbered by Protestants and the Act of Toleration passed by the representative assembly granted religious freedom to all Christians. a Protestant’s ignition of a civil war and later success caused a repealing of the Act and Catholics lost rights.
New England colonies: Rhode Island
arriving in 1631 to the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Roger Williams’s belief that an individual’s conscience could not be controlled by church authority conflicted with other Puritans and led to his banishment. he fled southward and founded Providence in 1636, establishing a government that let anyone worship freely and recognized Native rights. similarly, Anne Hutchinson believed in antinomialism (because sola fide, people did not have to follow traditional laws) which got her banished from the Bay Colony; she then founded Portsmouth in 1638. In 1644, Williams was given a charter from the parliament and joined Providence and Portsmouth into a single colony, Rhode Island.
New England colonies: Connecticut
the Connecticut river valley attracted others unhappy with Puritan authority. Reverend Thomas Hooker led the founding of Hartford in 1636. its settlers drew up the first written constitution in American history, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, establishing a representative government with an elected legislation and governer. John Davenport started the New Haven settlement in 1637. In 1665, the two settlements joined to form Connecticut, whose royal charter granted it a limited degree of self-government (election of governer).
New England colonies: New Hampshire
hoping to increase royal control over the colonies, Charles II separated New Hampshire from the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1679 and made it a royal colony under his appointed governer. this was the last colony to be founded in New England.
New England colonies: halfway covenant and religious practices over time
given that individuals had to have a confirmed religious experience (conversion) to be in a Puritan congregation and few of the Native-born generation were having them, the clergy offered a halfway covenant so people could become partial members. strict Puritan practices weakened in most communities to maintain church membership.
restoration colonies: overview
the Restoration colonies were founded in the late 17th century during the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II after the English Civil War.
restoration colonies: the Carolinas
Charles II granted the land between Virginia and Florida (Spanish) to eight nobles who became the proprietors of the Carolinas. In 1729, the two royal colonies were formed from the original grant. In 1670, few colonists and planters from Barbados founded Charleston in South Carolina, initially based on fur trade, but containing rice-growing plantations worked by slaves by the middle of the 18th century, resembling the economy of the West Indies. North Carolina had few harbors and poor transportation, developing very few plantations; they attracted tobacco farmers from Virginia who established small, self-sufficient tobacco farms, some using indentured servants and slaves.
the middle colonies: overview
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware had fertile land that attracted a diverse group of European immigrants, good harbors for cities, and religious tolerance.
middle colonies: New Jersey
the royal family gave military leader William Penn the broad extense of forestland west of New Jersey, naming it Pennsylvania. His son, also named William Penn had joined a group of Christian named the Quakers (believers that religious authority was found within each person and supporters of equality between all men and women), and when his dad died, he took the colony and hoped it would provide Quakers refuge (and also generate profit). He enacted liberal ideas in government (Quaker belief), providing a Frame of Government guarenteeing a an elected representative assembly, and a written constitution, the Charter of Liberties granting freedom of worship and unrestricted immigration. He managed the colony from the colony (unlike other proprietors who stayed in England), planned street grids/cities, treated Natives fairly, and promised political/religious freedom across to people throughout Europe to attract settlers.
middle colonies: Delaware
In 1702, Penn granted the lower three counties of Pennsylvania their own representative assembly, effectively making them a separate colony (Delaware), although they kept the same governor until the Revolution.
Georgia
In 1732, Georgia was chartered and received direct financial support from the government because they wanted to create a defensive buffer between Spanish Florida and South Carolina and they wanted to sent debt prisoners from England somewhere. Led by James Oglethorpe, Savannah was founded in 1733; he made a plan to make the colony thrive, but made strict regulations, which along with the threat of Spanish attacks led to the colony’s lack of success. By 1752, Georgia was taken and became a royal colony; restrictions dropped and the colony grew slowly as it adopted South Carolina’s rice plantation system.
early political institutions in the British colonies
consumed by domestic upheavels and wars with France, Britain paid little attention to the colonies and had difficulty exerting tight control on them. The Virginia Company promised settlers the same rights as in England, organizing the House of Burgesses, the first representative assembly in America dominated by elite planters. Similarly, the Mayflower Compact was made and signed by the Pilgrims on the Mayflower, pledging to make decisions by will of the majority and establishing an early form of self-government and a rudimentary constitution; towns throughout New England held town meetings to debate/elect but voting rights were broad and most colonists other than male property owners were excluded from the political process. Also, some governors ruled autocratically, causing democratic ideas that gradually developed to coexist with antidemocratic practices like Native mistreatment or slavery.
transatlantic trade: overview
the nations that controlled the colonies looked at them as a way to increase their power; one way they became stronger was through transatlantic trade.
triangular trade
merchant ships followed a regularly triangular route connecting America, Africa and Europe (New England: get rum > West Africa: trade rum for slaves > Middle Passage > West Indies: trade slaves for sugarcane > New England: sell sugar to make rum), with some including stops in Spain or England. English trade for slaves was formerly (1600s) monopolized by the Royal African Company (RAC) but could not supply what was demanded and was ended by Parliament, letting New England merchants enter the business.
mercantilism and empires
most kingdoms believed in mercantilism, leading them to export more than they imported and thus promote the sales of goods to other countries and establish tariffs. colonies only existed for profit and raw materials to promote the country’s industries.
mercantilism and empires: the Navigation Acts and their impacts
England implemented mercantilism with a series of Navigation Acts from 1650 and 1673 (post-Eng. Civ. War) which made it so trade to and from colonies could only be carried out by English/colonial-built ships, all imported goods to the colonies had to pass through English ports, and certain goods from the colonies could only be exported to England. they aided shipbuilding, gave the Chesapeake colonies a monopoly in England, and had little effects on the triangular trade; however, they severely limited the development of the colonial economy, having to pay high prices for English goods and accept low prices for their prices because they could only sell to England (bringing hard times to the Chesapeake colonies in the 1660s). colonists continued trade with natives foe furs, food, and more, creating contact between settlers and natives.
mercantilism and empires: the enforcement of the Navigation acts and salutary neglect
the practice of mercantilism was quite different from the theory; England was very lenient in enforcing regulations, a policy known as salutary neglect. Enforcement was difficult due to the far distance of the colonies making the exercising of authority difficult, larger problems in England than trade (English Civil War, wars with France) and Britain’s colonial agents being corrupt. salutary neglect and colonial resistance to regulation continued until 1763; regulation of trade would remain the fundamental problem between the colonists and England.
enforcement of the Navigation Acts: the Dominion of New England
the crown occasionally tried to overcome resistance to their trade laws. in 1684, it revoked Massachusetts’s charter for smuggling activity, harming English-colonial relations. when James II succeeded to the throne in 1685, he attempted to increase control by combining the colonies into large units and taking away representative assemblies: in 1686, various New England colonies (and New York/Jersey) were combined into the Dominion of New England, with Edmund Andros being sent as the governor and making himself unpopular by levying taxes, limiting town meetings, and revoking titles. After the Glorious Revolution, James II’s fall from power brought the Dominion to an end and the colonies operated again under separate charters.
conflict in New England: New England Confederation
in the 1640s, the New England colonies faced the the constant threat of attack from Natives, the Dutch, and the French; during this time, the colonies did not expect help from England, in the midst of the English Civil War. in 1643, Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Haven organized and formed the New England Confederation for their mutual benefit, essentially a military alliance formed to handle boundary disputes, return runaway servants, and manage relations with Natives; it was an early attempt at regional cooperation among the colonies. it lasted until 1684, when colonial rivalries and renewed control by the English monarchs (dissolution of the Dominion) brought it to an end. It set an important precedent for colonies working together.
conflict in New England: Metacom/King Philip’s War
only a few years before the confederations end, it helped the colonists win a war against the Natives. Metacom, a Wampanoag chief known as King Philip, led an alliance of tribes in response to the English settlers’ expansion onto their lands, causing Metacom’s War, in which several villages were burned and hundreds died. it was very violent, but with the help of some Native allies, colonial forces managed to defeat Metacom and end the organized resistance in New England.
conflict in Virginia: Bacon’s Rebellion
William Berkely, royal governor of Virginia, used dictatorial powers to govern on behalf of the Virginian planters; his favoritism towards the wealthy planters and his failure to protect smaller farmers from Indian attacks created deep resentment and set the stage for rebellion. Nathanial Bacon, a poor farmer, capitalized on the discontent of the poor western farmers to lead a rebellion against Berkely’s government, raisin an army and launching attacks against hostile and friendly Native tribes, escalating tensions. after defeating the governor’s forces and burning Jamestown, Bacon died and the army collapsed; Berkely regained control and suppressed the remaining rebels. though it was short-lived, it highlighted long-lasting disputes in the colonies, including sharp class differences, conflict on the frontiers between settlers and Natives, and colonial resistance to royal control, which persisted into the next century, even after more stability and prosperity.
Spanish rule and the Pueblo Revolt
Spain previously established Santa Fe as the capital of New Mexico as well as the encomienda system to force natives into labor. Spanish missionaries employed coercive and brutal measures to convert the Pueblo Indians, which led to the Pueblo Revolt in which the Pueblos sought to purge the Spanish from their territory. It worked and the Spanish were driven from the area for 12 years until they regained control in 1622 and ruled less harshly, leading to greater stability.
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