Unit 4: the Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment Period 2 (1648-1815)

Scientific Revolution

A period during the 16th and 17th centuries marked by major advances in science, mathematics, and astronomy that challenged traditional beliefs.

Impact of the Scientific Revolution

It replaced medieval and religious explanations of the natural world with observation, experimentation, and reason.

Importance of the Scientific Revolution

It laid the foundation for modern science, weakened Church authority, and paved the way for Enlightenment thought.

Ptolemy

A Greek astronomer and mathematician from antiquity who proposed the geocentric model of the universe.

Ptolemy's Contribution

He argued that Earth was the center of the universe and that the sun and planets revolved around it in circular orbits.

Importance of Ptolemy

His geocentric system dominated European thought for over a thousand years until Copernicus challenged it with the heliocentric theory.

Natural Philosophy

The study of nature and the physical universe before the development of modern science.

Function of Natural Philosophy

It sought to explain natural phenomena through logic, observation, and reasoning rather than theology or superstition.

Importance of Natural Philosophy

It served as the intellectual foundation for the Scientific Revolution and the emergence of modern scientific disciplines.

Aristotle's Views of the World

The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle's explanation of the cosmos and natural order.

Aristotle's Contribution

They taught that Earth was motionless at the center of the universe and that all matter consisted of four basic elements: earth, air, fire, and water.

Importance of Aristotle's Views

They shaped Church doctrine and European understanding of the universe until they were overturned during the Scientific Revolution.

Nicolaus Copernicus

A Polish astronomer and mathematician who lived from 1473 to 1543.

Copernicus's Contribution

He proposed the heliocentric theory, which placed the sun at the center of the universe instead of the Earth.

Importance of Copernicus

His ideas initiated the Scientific Revolution, challenged long-held religious teachings, and transformed the study of astronomy.

Heliocentric

The heliocentric theory is the idea that the sun, not the Earth, is at the center of the universe.

Function of Heliocentric Theory

It replaced the long-standing geocentric model by showing that the planets, including Earth, revolve around the sun.

Importance of Heliocentric Theory

It fundamentally changed humanity's understanding of the cosmos, challenged Church authority, and became a cornerstone of the Scientific Revolution.

Tycho Brahe

A Danish astronomer who made highly accurate observations of the stars and planets in the late 16th century.

Brahe's Contribution

He developed a detailed record of planetary positions and proposed a hybrid model combining geocentric and heliocentric ideas.

Importance of Tycho Brahe

His precise data provided the empirical foundation that allowed Johannes Kepler to formulate the laws of planetary motion.

Johannes Kepler

A German mathematician and astronomer who worked under Tycho Brahe in the early 17th century.

Kepler's Contribution

He used Brahe's data to develop the three laws of planetary motion, showing that planets move in elliptical orbits and at varying speeds.

Importance of Johannes Kepler

His work mathematically confirmed the heliocentric model and demonstrated that the universe operated according to physical laws.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian physicist, mathematician, and astronomer often called the 'father of modern science.'

Galileo's Contribution

He improved the telescope, discovered moons orbiting Jupiter, observed sunspots, and defended the heliocentric theory.

Importance of Galileo Galilei

His discoveries provided strong evidence for heliocentrism, leading to conflict with the Catholic Church and advancing experimental science.

Isaac Newton

An English mathematician and physicist who lived from 1643 to 1727.

Newton's Contribution

He formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation and unified the work of previous scientists into a single system of natural laws.

Importance of Isaac Newton

His Principia Mathematica became the foundation of classical physics and symbolized the triumph of reason and scientific inquiry in the modern era.

Encyclopedias

Collections of knowledge and ideas compiled during the Enlightenment, most famously Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie (1751-1772).

Function of encyclopedias

They gathered and organized human knowledge across science, philosophy, and art to promote reason, education, and progress.

Importance of encyclopedias

They spread Enlightenment ideas widely, challenged traditional authority, and helped shape modern intellectual culture.

Astrology

The belief that the positions and movements of celestial bodies influence human affairs and natural events.

Function of astrology

It blended mystical and observational traditions, using the stars to predict behavior and fate before modern astronomy separated from superstition.

Importance of astrology

It represents the pre-scientific worldview that the Scientific Revolution replaced with rational, empirical science.

Alchemy

A medieval and early modern practice that aimed to transform base metals into gold and discover the philosopher's stone.

Function of alchemy

It combined elements of chemistry, philosophy, and mysticism and led to experimentation with substances and reactions.

Importance of alchemy

Though unscientific, alchemy laid the groundwork for modern chemistry by promoting laboratory methods and systematic experimentation.

Francis Bacon

An English philosopher and statesman (1561-1626) who is considered the father of empiricism.

Function of Francis Bacon

He promoted the scientific method, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and inductive reasoning over speculation.

Importance of Francis Bacon

His ideas established the foundations of modern scientific inquiry and encouraged a practical, evidence-based approach to knowledge.

Rene Descartes

A French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist (1596-1650) known for his emphasis on rationalism.

Function of Rene Descartes

He developed deductive reasoning, proposed Cartesian dualism (mind-body separation), and famously stated, 'I think, therefore I am.'

Importance of Rene Descartes

His rationalist philosophy shaped modern thought and helped define the relationship between reason, science, and human existence.

William Harvey

An English physician who lived from 1578 to 1657.

Function of William Harvey

He discovered the circulation of blood through the body, demonstrating that the heart acts as a pump moving blood in a closed system.

Importance of William Harvey

His work overturned centuries of Galenic medical theory and became a cornerstone of modern physiology and medicine.

Robert Boyle

An Irish-born chemist and physicist who lived from 1627 to 1691.

Function of Robert Boyle

He established Boyle's Law, which describes the relationship between pressure and volume of gases, and emphasized experimentation in chemistry.

Importance of Robert Boyle

He is often called the 'father of modern chemistry' for transforming alchemy into a systematic, empirical science.

Reaction of the Catholic Church to new science

The Catholic Church's response to the discoveries and theories of the Scientific Revolution.

Function of the Catholic Church's reaction

It condemned ideas like heliocentrism that contradicted scripture, censored books, and punished figures such as Galileo.

Importance of the Catholic Church's reaction

It reflected the tension between faith and reason and highlighted the broader cultural struggle over intellectual authority in early modern Europe.

National academies of science

Official institutions created by European monarchs and governments in the 17th century to support scientific research and collaboration.

Function of national academies of science

They provided funding, organization, and recognition for scientists, helping to professionalize and institutionalize scientific study.

Importance of national academies of science

They promoted the spread of scientific knowledge, encouraged innovation, and linked science with national prestige and progress.

Impact of the Scientific Revolution on women

The effects that new scientific ideas and institutions had on women's roles and opportunities in early modern Europe.

Exclusion of women from scientific institutions

It largely excluded women from formal scientific institutions and education, though some women participated through salons, correspondence, and informal networks.

Importance of the impact of the Scientific Revolution on women

It revealed how gender inequality persisted even during an age of intellectual progress, setting the stage for later debates on women's rights and education.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement of the 18th century that emphasized reason, science, and individual rights over tradition and religious authority.

Effects of the Enlightenment

It encouraged critical thinking, challenged absolutism and superstition, and promoted ideas such as liberty, equality, and progress.

Importance of the Enlightenment

It reshaped political and social thought in Europe, influencing revolutions, reforms, and the development of modern democratic values.

Rationalism

The belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge and truth.

Effects of rationalism

It argued that human beings could understand the world through logic and deduction rather than faith or sensory experience alone.

Importance of rationalism

It became a central philosophy of the Enlightenment and laid the foundation for modern science and secular thought.

Thomas Hobbes

An English political philosopher who lived from 1588 to 1679.

Hobbes' contribution

He wrote Leviathan (1651), arguing that humans are naturally selfish and need an absolute ruler to maintain order and prevent chaos.

Importance of Thomas Hobbes

His social contract theory justified strong centralized authority and influenced later debates on government and human nature.

John Locke

An English philosopher who lived from 1632 to 1704.

Locke's contribution

He argued in Two Treatises of Government that people have natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and that governments exist to protect these rights.

Importance of John Locke

His ideas on natural rights and government by consent inspired Enlightenment thinkers and greatly influenced democratic revolutions, including the American and French Revolutions.

Philosophes

The intellectuals and writers of the Enlightenment who promoted reason, progress, and reform.

Contributions of the philosophes

They applied critical thinking to politics, religion, and society, publishing books and essays that challenged absolutism and intolerance.

Importance of the philosophes

They spread Enlightenment ideas throughout Europe, influencing social and political change and inspiring later democratic revolutions.

Montesquieu

A French Enlightenment thinker and aristocrat who lived from 1689 to 1755.

Montesquieu's contribution

He wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748), arguing for the separation of powers among legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.

Importance of Montesquieu

His ideas greatly influenced modern constitutional government, including the U.S. Constitution's framework of checks and balances.

Voltaire

A French writer and philosopher (1694-1778) known for his wit and criticism of organized religion and absolutism.

Voltaire's contribution

He advocated for freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state, famously stating, 'I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.'

Importance of Voltaire

He embodied Enlightenment ideals of reason and liberty, shaping Western thought on civil rights and freedom of expression.

Deism

A belief system that emerged during the Enlightenment which holds that God created the universe but does not intervene in it.

Importance of Deism

It reflected the Enlightenment's move toward rational religion and influenced many philosophers and political leaders of the era.

Denis Diderot

A French philosopher and writer who lived from 1713 to 1784.

Denis Diderot's Contribution

He edited and published the Encyclopédie, a massive collection of Enlightenment knowledge intended to promote reason and challenge ignorance.

Importance of Denis Diderot

His work spread Enlightenment ideas across Europe and symbolized the movement's faith in education, progress, and intellectual freedom.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A Swiss-born French philosopher and writer who lived from 1712 to 1778.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Works

He wrote The Social Contract (1762), arguing that legitimate government is based on the general will of the people, and Emile, promoting education that develops natural human goodness.

Importance of Jean-Jacques Rousseau

His ideas on popular sovereignty and individual freedom inspired democratic and revolutionary movements, especially the French Revolution.

Religion in the Enlightenment

The changing attitudes toward faith, reason, and organized religion during the 18th century.

Impact of Religion in the Enlightenment

It saw thinkers questioning traditional Church authority, promoting tolerance, and embracing deism or natural religion based on reason.

Importance of Religion in the Enlightenment

It reflected the shift toward secularism and intellectual freedom, weakening the Church's political power and promoting religious tolerance.

David Hume

A Scottish philosopher and historian who lived from 1711 to 1776.

David Hume's Philosophy

He argued that human knowledge derives from experience and habit rather than reason alone, and he questioned traditional proofs of God's existence.

Importance of David Hume

His skepticism and empiricism deeply influenced modern philosophy, especially later thinkers like Immanuel Kant and the development of scientific reasoning.

Adam Smith

A Scottish economist and philosopher who lived from 1723 to 1790.

Adam Smith's Contribution

He wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776), explaining the principles of free-market capitalism and the idea of the 'invisible hand' guiding economic activity.

Importance of Adam Smith

He is considered the father of modern economics, and his defense of laissez-faire capitalism shaped global economic thought.

Cesare Beccaria

An Italian philosopher and jurist who lived from 1738 to 1794.

Cesare Beccaria's Work

He wrote On Crimes and Punishments (1764), criticizing torture and the death penalty and calling for fair, rational legal systems.