Veterinary Clinical Pathology and Immunology Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcard set covering clinical chemistry, urinalysis, endocrinology, organ-specific diagnostic testing, and basic immunology based on veterinary lecture notes.

Postprandial sample

A blood sample collected immediately after a meal, characterized by elevated blood glucose, decreased inorganic phosphorus, lipemia (turbid serum), altered amylase, increased glomerular filtration rate (GFR), and affected bile acid levels.

Preprandial sample

A blood sample taken from an animal that has been fasted and has not eaten for 12 hours.

Chemistry analysis preferred sample

Serum collected in a red-top or yellow-top tube.

Icteric serum

Yellow-colored serum caused by the presence of elevated bilirubin levels.

Lipemic serum

Milky or turbid serum caused by excessive fat/lipids in the sample.

Hemolyzed serum

Pink or red-colored serum resulting from the release of free hemoglobin from ruptured red blood cells.

Dehydration laboratory findings

Laboratory changes characterized by elevated total protein, increased albumin, increased hematocrit, increased USG, elevated BUN (prerenal azotemia), and possible increases in $Na^+$ and $Cl^-$.

Fibrinogen

An insoluble protein precursor synthesized by hepatocytes that makes up 3% to 6% of total plasma proteins, serves as the precursor to fibrin, is required for clotting tests, and is absent in serum.

Heat precipitation test

A diagnostic method used to calculate fibrinogen concentration using the formula: $\text{TS mg/dL (Nonincubated)} - \text{TS mg/dL (incubated)} = \text{fibrinogen mg/dL}$.

Liver specific tests

Diagnostic assays specifically targeting liver function and excretion, specifically bilirubin and bile acids.

Liver function enzymes

Enzyme assays including ALT, AST (which can also increase with exercise), ALP/AP (which increases with bone growth), and GGT.

Kidney assay tests

Diagnostic assays primarily evaluating renal clearance, specifically Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) and Creatinine.

CK (Creatine Kinase)

An organ-specific enzyme for striated muscle damage (and to some extent the brain) that leaks out of damaged muscle tissue into the blood.

Exocrine pancreatic tests

Assays assessing exocrine pancreatic function, including Amylase, Lipase, TLI, and pancreatic-specific tests fPLI and cPLI.

Endocrine pancreatic tests

Assays assessing endocrine pancreatic function, including Glucose, Fructosamine, Glycosylated hemoglobin, and beta-hydroxybutyrate.

ALT (Alanine Transaminase)

A liver-specific enzyme in dogs, cats, and primates; horses, ruminants, pigs, and birds do not possess sufficient quantities.

AST (Aspartate Transaminase)

A non-organ-specific enzyme present in hepatocytes as well as RBCs, cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, kidneys, and the pancreas.

ALP / AP (Alkaline Phosphatase)

An enzyme found in osteoblasts, chondroblasts, intestinal cells, placental cells, and liver cells.

GGT (Gamma Glutamyltransferase)

An enzyme present in many tissues whose primary clinical source is the liver, elevating in response to liver disease.

BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen)

An assay evaluating kidney function based on the renal system's ability to clear nitrogenous waste or urea from blood.

CRE (Creatinine)

A metabolic byproduct formed from creatine in skeletal muscle that diffuses into blood; nearly 75% of kidney tissue must be nonfunctional before levels rise.

Hemolysis-induced electrolyte elevation

Potassium, which is the primary intracellular electrolyte released and altered due to erythrocyte rupture.

Calcium and Phosphorus relationship

An inverse relationship where increases in serum calcium levels correspond to decreases in phosphorus levels, and vice versa.

Nephron

The anatomical unit of the kidney comprising the renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, distal convoluted tubule, and loops of Henle.

Hilus

The anatomical entry/exit region of the kidney containing blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, and the glomerulus.

ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)

A hormone synthesized and released from the posterior pituitary that acts on collecting ducts to promote water reabsorption.

Aldosterone

A steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal glands located superior to each kidney.

Insulin

A hormone produced and secreted by pancreatic beta cells in the islets of Langerhans that reduces blood glucose levels.

Alpha cells

Endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans that produce glucagon to elevate blood glucose by promoting liver glycogen conversion.

Beta cells

Endocrine cells in the islets of Langerhans that produce insulin to lower blood glucose by facilitating cellular glucose uptake.

Azotemia

An elevation in Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) and other nitrogen-containing waste compounds in the blood.

Uremia

A toxic clinical state resulting from prolonged azotemia and excessive buildup of waste products in blood, signaling significant loss of kidney function.

Oliguria

A significant decrease in urine output, typically accompanied by high specific gravity due to high solute concentration.

Polyuria

An abnormal increase in total volume of urine production.

Anuria

Complete absence of urine production, often associated with urethral obstruction, bladder rupture, or complete renal shutdown.

Pollakiuria

Frequent voiding of small quantities of urine.

Hematuria

The presence of intact red blood cells within the urine sample.

Hemoglobinuria

The presence of free, dissolved hemoglobin in urine.

Myoglobinuria

The presence of myoglobin protein in urine resulting from muscle damage.

Pyuria

The presence of excessive white blood cells or pus in urine.

Hypoglycemia

Abnormally low blood glucose concentration, typically defined as below $70 \text{ mg/dL}$.

Hyperglycemia

Elevated blood glucose concentration, usually defined as $130 \text{ mg/dL}$ when fasting or above $180 \text{ mg/dL}$ 2 hours postprandially.

Normoglycemia

The state of maintaining standard blood glucose levels, ranging from $70 \text{ mg/dL}$ to $100 \text{ mg/dL}$.

Water deprivation test

A diagnostic procedure withholding water for 8 to 12 hours to evaluate renal concentrating ability and distinguish causes of polyuria/polydipsia like diabetes insipidus.

Vasopressin response test

Also known as the desmopressin stimulation test; evaluates kidney response to exogenous vasopressin to differentiate central from nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.

Diabetes mellitus confirmation test

Primary diagnostic evaluation utilizing fasting blood glucose measurement.

Hypothyroidism confirmation tests

Diagnostic panels testing thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), T4 levels, and thyroid autoantibodies.

Hyperthyroidism confirmation tests

Diagnostic panels measuring TSH levels, T4 levels, and radioactive iodine uptake.

Addison's disease confirmation tests

Diagnostics checking serum cortisol, ACTH stimulation, and identifying low sodium combined with high potassium levels.

Cushing's disease confirmation tests

Diagnostic protocols including 24-hour urinary free cortisol levels, low-dose dexamethasone suppression test, and ACTH levels.

Thyroid disease species predilections

Canine species are most predisposed to hypothyroidism, whereas feline species are most predisposed to hyperthyroidism.

Lactate test

An assay used to evaluate tissue hypoxia or hypoperfusion (decreased oxygenation or blood flow).

Bladder expression

A manual urine collection technique inappropriate for bacterial culture and strictly contraindicated in patients with urethral obstruction.

Cystocentesis

The preferred, sterile urine collection technique for bacterial culture, performed without redirecting the needle.

Cattle urine collection method

Stimulated by rubbing straw or a hand in a circular pattern ventral to the vulva.

Sheep urine collection method

Stimulated by manually occluding the nostrils.

Horse urine collection method

Stimulated by rubbing a warm cloth on the ventral abdomen or introducing fresh hay to the stall.

Urine sample storage and timeline

Urinalysis should be performed within 30 to 60 minutes of collection; refrigeration is required if delayed, followed by re-warming to room temperature prior to testing.

Isosthenuria

A condition where urine specific gravity equals that of glomerular filtrate (1.008–1.012), indicating loss of renal concentrating and diluting ability as seen in renal failure.

Hyposthenuria

Urine specific gravity lower than 1.008, indicating dilute urine as observed in diabetes insipidus.

Hypersthenuria

Urine specific gravity greater than 1.012, representing concentrated urine commonly observed with dehydration.

Physical properties of urine

The gross physical parameters of urine: volume, color, odor, transparency, and specific gravity.

Ketones in urine

Byproducts of abnormal fat metabolism (e.g., beta-hydroxybutyric acid) detected during diabetes mellitus, bovine ketosis, or ewe pregnancy toxemia.

Glucosuria

Presence of glucose in urine resulting from elevated blood glucose, diabetes mellitus, excitement/fear/restraint, high carbohydrate diets, or Cushing's disease.

Bilirubinuria causes

The occurrence of bilirubin in urine resulting from hepatic disease, hemolysis, or biliary obstruction.

Urine strip protein sensitivity limit

Standard reagent strips detect urine protein once levels reach a minimum concentration of $30 \text{ mg/dL}$.

Tubular reabsorption threshold

The maximum plasma concentration of a substance at which renal tubular reabsorption capacity is exceeded, causing excretion into urine.

Glucose tubular reabsorption threshold

Approximately $180 - 200 \text{ mg/dL}$, above which glucose spills into urine.

Amino acid tubular reabsorption threshold

Approximately $65 - 90 \text{ mg/dL}$, above which excess amino acids are excreted into urine.

Urate tubular reabsorption threshold

Approximately $5 - 10 \text{ mg/dL}$, above which uric acid appears in urine.

Bicarbonate tubular reabsorption threshold

Approximately $18 - 20 \text{ mEq/L}$, above which bicarbonate is excreted into urine.

Phosphate tubular reabsorption threshold

Approximately $2 - 4 \text{ mg/dL}$, above which phosphate appears in urine.

Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)

An acute complication of diabetes mellitus defined by insulin deficiency, elevated circulating ketones, and metabolic acidosis.

Blood gas and electrolyte sampling

Collection of arterial blood using a heparinized syringe, required to be analyzed within 15 minutes.

Trace bilirubin species significance

Considered a normal physiological finding in male dogs, but strictly abnormal in cats.

Trace protein species significance

Considered a normal finding in dogs, but strictly abnormal in cats.

Calcium carbonate crystals

Crystals that are round with radiating lines or dumbbell-shaped; normally found in large amounts in equine and rabbit urine.

Uric acid crystals

Yellow or yellow-brown diamond or rhomboid-shaped crystals found routinely only in Dalmatians.

Ethylene glycol toxicity crystals

Calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals presenting as small dumbbell or picket-fence shapes following antifreeze ingestion.

Normal urine sediment RBC range

2 to 3 red blood cells per high-power field (HPF).

Normal urine sediment WBC range

0 to 1 white blood cells per high-power field (HPF).

Hyaline cast

A clear, colorless, pure protein cast formed in the renal tubules.

Granular cast

A hyaline cast containing protein granules; the most common cast type, associated with acute nephritis.

Leukocyte cast

A renal cast containing white blood cells (mostly neutrophils), indicating tubular inflammation.

Erythrocyte cast

A deep yellow or orange cast containing red blood cells, indicating renal hemorrhage.

Waxy cast

A wide cast with square ends and a dull, homogenous waxy appearance, indicating chronic renal failure.

Fatty cast

A cast containing lipid droplets, seen in cats with renal disease and dogs with diabetes mellitus.

Struvite crystals

Triple phosphate (magnesium ammonium phosphate) crystals described as eight-sided prisms with tapered ends, commonly called coffin lids.

Calcium oxalate dihydrate crystals

Small square crystals featuring an 'X' across the surface resembling an envelope back; common in acidic/neutral urine in dogs and horses.

Amorphous crystalline material

Granular precipitate crystals appearing as amorphous phosphates in alkaline urine or amorphous urates in acidic urine.

Equine kidney anatomy

Anatomical variation unique to horses, characterized by a distinct heart-shaped kidney.

Pregnancy Toxemia

A late-gestation metabolic disorder in ewes and does (ketosis/twin lamb disease) triggered by energy demands exceeding intake, linked to obesity, multiple fetuses, and poor nutrition.

IgG

The most abundant immunoglobulin class, primarily responsible for fetal and neonatal immunity.

IgM

The primary immunoglobulin responsible for activating the complement system.

IgE

The immunoglobulin class directly mediating hypersensitivity and allergic reactions.

IgA

The primary immunoglobulin class responsible for mucosal immunity.

IgD

An immunoglobulin functioning as a surface antigen on B lymphocytes.

Signs of inflammation

The five cardinal clinical signs: redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function.

Monocytes

Circulating white blood cells that migrate into tissues and differentiate into tissue macrophages.

Lymphocyte site of origin

B lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow, whereas T lymphocytes are produced in the thymus.