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popular sovereignty
The political idea that power comes from the people, not God, and that it remains with the people.
separation of powers
The political concept, advocated by Montesquieu, where government’s powers are divided into different branches, such as executive and legislative.
American Revolution
The first successful revolt by a colony against rule by a European mother country, ending in American victory and the establishment of the first federal republic in history.
French and Indian War
The North American theater of the Seven Years’ War fought between Britain and its American colonies against France and its colonies in North America, ending in a major British victory.
Declaration of Independence
A crucial political document written by Thomas Jefferson, inspired by Locke's social contract theory, outlining reasons for rejecting British rule.
First Estate
Pre-Revolutionary term for the Catholic clergy of France.
Second Estate
Pre-Revolutionary term for the nobility of France.
Third Estate
Pre-Revolutionary term for the masses of French society, including peasants, bourgeoisie, and the urban poor.
peasants
Rural, agricultural free laborers who are part of the lower classes.
sans-culottes
A slang term for the urban working poor during the French Revolution.
bourgeoisie
The urban, educated middle and upper classes.
taille
A hated tax paid only by the common people of France, exempting clergy and nobility.
Estates-General
The historic parliament of France that lacked the same powers possessed by the British Parliament.
cahiers de doleances
Lists of grievances drawn up by the three estates, suggesting reforms including fair taxation and equal voting rights.
National Assembly
Declaring itself the new parliament of France, dominated by the Third Estate.
Tennis Court Oath
The vow taken by delegates of the National Assembly to not disband until a constitution for France was written.
militias
Military forces made up of civilians assembled in times of emergency.
Bastille
A fortress in Paris stormed on July 14, 1789, seen as a major event of the Revolution.
Great Fear
A summer 1789 panic in France where peasant mobs attacked noble estates.
manorial obligations
Ancient requirements for peasants to work on lands of nobility.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
The first constitution of France promoting equal rights for all French men.
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
A law requiring French Catholic clergy to swear loyalty to the nation, creating conflict with the Church.
metric system
The common measurement system using meter, liter, and gram, adopted by France during the Revolution.
“Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”
The famous motto of the French Revolution summarizing its ideals.
Women’s March
A 1789 march by Parisian women demanding lower bread prices, forcing the King to return to Paris.
Haitian Revolution
The first successful slave revolt against European rule, establishing the first Black ruled republic.
inflation
A general increase in prices and a decline in the purchasing power of money.
emigres
French nobles who fled revolutionary France and supported foreign powers against France.
Declaration of Pillnitz
A 1792 agreement between Austria and Prussia to restore the old order in France.
Legislative Assembly
The new French parliament that replaced the National Assembly in 1791, favoring radical reforms.
Jacobins
The radical political group during the Revolution, known for their violent methods.
Girondin
A moderate faction of the Jacobins who supported the Revolution but opposed extremism.
Mountain
The most radical faction of the Jacobins, supporting the execution of the King.
Reign of Terror
The most extreme phase of the Revolution marked by mass arrests and executions.
National Convention
The parliament elected in fall 1792, governing France during the Terror and the Directory.
Committee of Public Safety
A group of delegates with dictatorial power during the Reign of Terror.
Thermidorean Reaction
A violent period in summer 1794 following the arrest and execution of many leaders of the Terror.
Directory
The government formed after the Terror, lasting until Napoleon seized power.
coup d’etat
The overthrow of a legitimate government by military force.
archeology
The study of human history through the excavation of artifacts.
Rosetta Stone
A massive stone tablet discovered in Egypt containing the same message in three languages.
Consulate
Napoleon's first government, lasting until he proclaimed the Empire in 1804.
Concordat with the Church
An agreement in 1801 between Napoleon and the Pope that established peace with the Church.
irreligious
Indifferent or hostile to religion; holding no religious beliefs.
Code Napoleon
A national legal code introduced by Napoleon that modernized French law.
plebiscite
A direct vote by the common people on a significant issue.
First (Grand) Empire
The Empire from Napoleon's proclamation in 1804 until his abdication in 1814.
balance-of-power
The diplomatic goal of preventing any single nation from dominating Europe.
puppet-state
A nation that is officially independent but controlled by another nation.
Grand Duchy of Warsaw
A Napoleonic puppet-state that restored Polish independence.
Confederation of the Rhine
A Napoleonic puppet-state that unified Germany post the Treaty of Westphalia.
Continental System
Napoleon’s plan to restrict trade with Britain to cause economic ruin.
economic warfare
Using economic tactics against rivals to cause financial collapse.
Peninsular War
A conflict starting with Napoleon's occupation of Spain, involving guerrilla warfare.
guerilla warfare
A military tactic where an inferior force utilizes unconventional methods.
Invasion of Russia
Napoleon's disastrous 1812 military campaign, leading to heavy losses.
scorched earth
A defensive tactic where resources are destroyed to deny their use to an enemy.
Congress of Vienna
A diplomatic event aimed at restoring European order after Napoleon's defeat.
Prince Metternich
A conservative leader influential in European politics during the early 1800s.
restoration
Returning a monarch or government to power.
legitimacy
The principle of a legal and rightful authority.
Hundred Days
The period when Napoleon returned to power, ending with his defeat at Waterloo.
Battle of Waterloo
The last battle of Napoleon's career, resulting in his defeat by Prussian and British forces.
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