Big Scary Vocab List

Psychology

The scientific study of mind and behavior

Biological appraoch

How the brain and body enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences (Studies having to do with the brain)

• Ex: Having blonde hair

evoluntonary approach

How natural selection of traits promoted survival of genes

• Ex: We smile because friendly people survived

Cogntive approach

How we encode, process, store, and retrieve info, the ways we believe, plan, and solve

• Ex: Remembering a definition for a test

Psychodyanmic approach

How behaviors from unconsciousness drives and conflicts (dreams, memories, childhood)

• Ex: Friend mad at you from her own securities

• More modern approach to psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis

How behaviors from unconsciousness drives and conflicts (dreams, memories, childhood)

• Rooted in Freud’s theory

Sociocultural appraoch

How behaviors and thinking vary for situations and cultures

• Ex: Americans eat lots of fast food because of ads

Humanistic approach

How we meet needs for love, acceptance, and self-fulfillment

• Ex: Becoming a doctor because its your dream job

Behavioral approach

How we learn observable responses

• Ex: Being afraid of dogs, because you’ve been bitten

Biopsychosocial model

All behavior and mental processes are explianed through a combination of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences

Critical thinking

Thinking that doesn’t blindly accept arguments and conclusions

• Examines assumptions

• Discerns hidden values

• Evaluates evidence

• Assess conclusions

Looks into methods, biases, anecdotal evidence, proper data, correlation vs. causation

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after leaning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

• I knew it all along

Confirmation bias

tendency to look for evidence that supports our preconceived notion (believes) and ignore evidence that disconfirms our beliefs

Scientific method

A method that asks the question and observes natures answers

• Ex: Low self esteem leads to depression, test by assessing both things

Hypothesis

A testable prediction

• Ex: Assess people for both self-esteem levels and depression

Falsifiability

Mark of scientific strength

• It can be proven wrong

Operational definition

Measurable procedure used to define research variables

• Ex: To measure academic sucess by collecting student’s GPA at the end of the semester or by tracking their average test scores over a period of time

Replication

Repeating the essence of research to see if findings can be generalized

Peer review

Experts determine if the theory has originality and accuracy

Case study

One person or group is studied in depth to reveal universal circumstances

• Pros: Details of subjects, unique quality of situation, unethical treatment

• Cons: No correlation data, cannot generalize, time consuming

  • Ex: One man who thought his wife was a hat, Little Albert

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate the situation

• Does not explain behavior, only describes it

  • Pro: Ecological validity

  • Cons: No manipulation (Can’t give causal relationship), Hawthorne effect

Survey

Self reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group

• Pros: Fast, cheap, can get a lot of data

• Cons: Self reporting bias = people lie or forget, Social desirability bias = people answer what they think others want to hear

Random sampling

Fairly represents a population because each member has an equal change on inclusion

Population

All the cases (types of people) in a group being studied

• Does not always apply to whole country population

• Demographics

  • Gender, race, socioeconomic class

Wording effects

How the choice of words or the order of presentation can influence participants’ responses or perceptions, even subconsciously

• Type of systematic bias

Social desirability bias

• people answer what they think others want to hear

Correlation

Measure to extent to which 2 factors vary together and how each predicts each other

• Ex: SAT scores & GPA

• When one goes up, one goes down, when one goes up the other goes up

Correlation coefficient

An index of the relationship between 2 factors

• Measured from -1 to +1

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots in which each dot represents the values of 2 variables

• The slope suggests the direction of the relationship and the amount of scatter suggests the strength

• Closer together = stronger

illusory correlation

Perception of a relationship where none exists (confirmation bias)

• Ex: An unwashed favoite jersey will lead to a win of a sports team

Regression toward the mean

Tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

• Extraordinary happenings tend to be followed by more ordinary ones

Experiment

The researcher controls one or more factors to observe the effect

• Looking for the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is being manipulated

• Ex: Study on graduation rates of at risk seniors who participate in an intensive study program opposed to those who don’t

  • Independent Variable: Intensive study program

Dependent variable

The outcomes, changes based on independent variable

• Ex: Study on graduation rates of at risk seniors who participate in an intensive study program opposed to those who don’t

  • Dependent Variable: Graduation rates

Experimental group

The group exposed to treatment (independent variable)

• Ex: Study on graduation rates of at risk seniors who participate in an intensive study program opposed to those who don’t

  • Experimental Group: At risk high school seniors in study program

Control group

The group not exposed to the treatment (independent variable)

• Ex: Study on graduation rates of at risk seniors who participate in an intensive study program opposed to those who don’t

  • Control group: At risk high school seniors not in study program

Placebo effect

Results caused by experimentation alone, effect does not come from independent variable, effect comes from belief that it is real

• Ex: Feeling sick after taking placebo covid vaccine

Single blind procedure

Participant is ignorant of which group they are in, but researchers know

Double-blind procedure

Both participant and researcher don’t know the groups

• Helps Prevent experimenter bias

Confederates

An individual who appears to be a participant in an experiment, but is actually working for the research and has a predetermined role to play

Confounding variables

A factor other than Independent Variable that might produce an effect, similar to that variable in correlation

• One group is age-heavy or gender-heavy

Random assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance

• Minimizes preexisting differences, allows study to be more generalized

Generalizability / Generalization

The degree to which the findings of a study can be applied to a broader population or different situations beyond the specific sample and setting in which the study was conducted

• Determines how widely the results of a study can be considered meaningful and applicable

Longitudinal study

Research in which the same group of people are restudied and retested over time

• Ex: How does your IQ change from 20 to 70 years old

  • Periodically retest the same people and show how it changes

Cross sectional study

A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

• Experimental or correlational

  • Ex: In 2019 do 20 year olds score higher than 70 year olds

Qualitative research

Narrative data

• Ex: Structured interviews

Quantitative research

Numerical data

• Likert Scale (strongly agree to strongly disagree)

Mean

Add up all the numbers and divide by the amount of numbers

• Ex: 3, 3, 5, 8, 7, 6, 5, 3

  • Mean: 40/8 = 5

Median

Find the exact middle of all the numbers if there are two numbers add them together and divide by two

• Ex: 3, 3, 5, 8, 7, 6, 5, 3

  • Median: (8+7)/2 = 7.5

Mode

The most frequently occurring number

• Ex: 3, 3, 5, 8, 7, 6, 5, 3

  • Mode: 3

Histogram

A graph to represent frquency distribution of a few data points of one variable

• Stack each data point in the column they belong in

Skew

• Positive (right) = mean pulled toward higher end

• Negative (left) = mean pulled toward lower end

  • Mean is easily skewed — outliers

  • Median is less skewed

  • Mode is not particularly skewed

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in distribution

Standard deviation

To what extent scores vary around the mean score

Normal distribution

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes distribution of data, most scores fall near the mean

• Mean = median = mode

Inferential statistics

Uses data from a sample to make inferences or generalizations about a larger population

Statistical significance

How likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

• P value less than or equal to 0.05

Effect size

A measure that quantifies the magnitude or strength of a relationship between two variables, or the difference betwen two groups

Informed consent

Participants told enough information so they can choose to participate with minimal deception

Informed assent

Informed consent but for minors

Debriefing

Post experimental explanation of a study including deceptions and purpose of the study

Institutional review board

A committee the reviews and approves research involving human participants, ensuring ethical conduct and participant safety

Behavior genetics

Study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Nature vs nurture

Debate between what is more important in development

• Nature: Genetics

• Nurture: Environment you grew up in

Heredity

Process of passing genetic info/traits from parent to their offspring through genes

Environment

The environment you were raised

Fraternal twins

Develop from separate fertilized eggs

• Not any genetically closer than siblings, just share the womb

• May act / look alike

• Dizygotic, separate placentas

Identical twins

Develop from a single fertilized egg that split in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

• Same genotype / genetically identical

• Monozygotic

Nervous system

Your body’s electrochemical communication network consisting of all nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

• Uses electricity to transmit information

Peripheral nervous system

Sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Central nervous system

The brain and spinal cord

Reflex arc

Pathway that is composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron

Neuron

A nerve cell

• Basic building block of the nervous system

Neurogensis

formation of new neurons

Sensory neurons

Carry incoming information from sensory receptors to brain and spinal cord

Motor neurons

Carry outgoing info from brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

Interneurons

Processes info between sensory inputs and motor inputs and are cells within the brain

• Communicates internally

Glial cells

Hold nerve cells in place and support them

• Located in central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

Action potential

A neural impulse; an electrical charge that travels down the axon to send information

Resting potential

When neuron has more negative ions inside, more positive ions outside

• Is capable of hitting action potential

Threshold

The threshold to reach action potential is -55

• Minimum level of stimulation a neuron needs to reach before it will fire an action potential

All-or-nothing reaction (action potential)

Gotta go all the way or it won’t work

Refractory period

Cell rests, pumps positive sodium ions back out

• Becomes even more negative

• Cannot fire again til it rest and gets back to -70

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gap

• Released by sending neuron → travel across neuron → bind to receptor sites → influences whether the receiving neuron will fire

• Only certain neurotransmitters can trigger certain neurons

Reuptake

When the sending neuron absorbs the excess neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine

Enables muscle movement, learning, and memory

Alzheimer’s disease

A progressive disorder that affects memory, thinking, and overall cognitive function

• Most common cause of dementia

Myasthenia gravis

A neurological disorder characterized by fluctuating muscle weakness that worsens with activity and improves with rest

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and awakeness

• Too little: Lowered mood

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter, slows things down

• Too little: seizures, tremors, insomnia

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter, speeds things up

• Involved in memory

• Too much: Migraines or seizures

Substance P

involved in pain perception and immune response

• Too much: chronic pain

Dopamine

Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

• Too much: schizophrenia

• Too little: parkinsons

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, awakeness

• Too little: depression

Endorphins

natural, drug-like neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure

• Too much: chronic pain

Agonist

Mimics effect of natural neurotransmitter

Antagonist

block neurotransmitters from working

Psychoactive drugs

Chemicals that alter the brain that are not natural to the body

Tolerance

Diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of the drug, requiring larger doses to feel the effect

• Ex: Needing more and more caffeine to be awake

Dependence

A state of physiological and psychological need to take a drug