Social Psycholgy - Psych #10

Attribution Theory

The theory that we tend to explain the behavior of others as an aspet of either an internal disposition or the external situation

Dispositional Attribution

Attributing someone’s actions to their thoughts, feelings, personality characterics

Situational Disposition

Attributing someone’s actions to the various facotrs in the situation

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and realte to one another

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal dispositions rather than to situations, and to yourself as external dispositions

• People tend to blame or credit the person more than the the situation

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency for individuals to attribute positive events to their own character or action, but attribute negative vent to external factors.

• A cognitive bias that helps to maintain a positive self-image and protect one’s self-esteem

Attitude

The beliuf and feeling that predisposes someone to respond in a particular to objects, people, and events

Attitudes Affecting Actions

Many studies suggest a person’s attitudes do not match their actions

• Attitudes can predict behaviors if:

  • Outside influences are minimal

  • People are aware of their attitudes

  • Attitude is relevant to behavior

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to later comply with a larger one

Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon

The tendency for people who have not agreed to a large request to later comply with a smaller one.

Role

A set of expectation in a social setting that defines how one ought to behave

Playing a role can…

influence or change one’s attitudes.

Stanford Prison Study

College students played the role of guard or prisoner in a simulated prison

• The study ended when the guards became too aggressive and cruel, demonstrating how roles can affect behaviors

Philip Zimbardo

An American psychologist whose research focuses on heroism, cult behavior and shyness. Famous for the Stanford Prison Experiment

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent.

• When our attitudes are inconsistent with our actions, we change out attitudes to reduce the dissonance

  • Ex. Waiving attitude towards working out, even when you promised yourself you were going to the gym)

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

Solomon Asch

A social psychologist who researched the circumstances under which people conform

Asch Conformity Experiments

In the expeirment, a group of participants were asked to match the length of lines on cards, with an obvious, correct answer.

• However, each group only included one REAL participant, with everyone else being a plant who gave incorrect answers.

Factors increasing confromity

• The prson feels incompetent or insecure

• The group has 3+ members

• The rest of the group is unanimous

• The person is impressed by the status of the group

• No prior commitments were made

• The group is observing the responder

• One’s culture encourages this (ex. Japanese)

Stanley Milgram

A social psychologist who researched obedience to authority

Obedience

The tendency to comply with others, implied or real, from someone percieved as an authority

Milgram’s Obedience Study

Conducted in the 1960’s, involved participants who were instructed to adminster increasingly severe electric shocks to another (actor), as they answered questiosn incorrectly.

• Despite hearing screams, the study demonstrated that 63% of particpants woulf folllow all instructions, even lethal ones, to the end.

  • Demonstrated powerful effect of authority.

Social facilitation

Improved performance in the presence of others

• Occurs with simple or well-learned tasks, but not with difficult, or otherwise unlearned tasks

Social Loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards attaining a common goal than when indivudally accoutnable

• People may be less accountable in a group, or they may think their efforts are not needed

Deindividuation (mob mentality)

The loss of self-awareness and self-constraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

• People lose their sense of responsibility when in a group

Group Polarization

Enhancement of a group’s preexisting attitudes through group discussion

• Discussion among like-minded people strengtens preexisting attitudes

Groupthink

A phenomenon in which a group priorities consensus over critical evaluation, often leading to poor-decision making to occur

• Ex. Group members may ignore or discount information that is inconsistent with their chosen decision, and express strong disapproval of any group that disagrees.

Self-fufilling Prophecy

When we believe something to be true (about ourselves or others) and we act in ways that cause these beliefs to be true

Minority Influence

Minority grouos can influence the majority, must be firm in their conviction

Attraction

Composed of three ingredients: Proximity, Physical Attractiveness, and Similarity

Proximity

The people we like, date, and even maryry typically live near us

Physical Attractiveness

Appearance is the first filter we use to sort the poeple we want to get to know from those we don’t

• Positive first impressions are correlated with this factor of the person

• These people are judged to be happier, healthier, and more successful

• Dictated by culture.

Similarity

We are likely to share our interests, attitudes, age, intelligence, economic status, as well as our beleifs on religion, smoking, and other social issues with our lovers and friends.

Mere Exposure Effect

The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases how much one likes it.

Passionate Love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love realtionship (honeymoon period)

Companionate Love

A deep, affectionate feeling for those with whom our lives are intertwined

• Two imporant factors: Equity & Self-disclosure

Equity

The condition in which people contribute to and recieve from a relationship at a simialr rate

• Couples share in decision-making and possessions

• Freely give and recieve emotional support

Self-Disclosure

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

• Includes: likes, dislikes, fears, accomplishments, failures, etc.

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others

Jon Darvey/Bibb Latane

Two psychologist who researched the circumstances that determine when a bystander will intervene on behalf of another person

Bystander effect

The tendency for a person to be less likely to give aid if other people are present

Kitty Genovese

Tragically demonstrated the bystander effect: Heard and ignored by 38 people, leading to her r*pe and de*th by stabbing.

Factors Incresaing Bystander Intervention

• Not in a hurry

• Believe the victim deserves help

• In a good mood

• Feeling guilty

• Live in a small town or rural area

• Just saw someone being helper

Which is not necessary for someone to help?

Report the incident

Prejudice

An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude towards a group and its members

• Usually involves stereotypes, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

Stereotype

A generalized (sometimes, accurate, but usually overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

Discrimination

Taking action against a group of people because of stereotypes beliefs and feelings of prejudice.

Ingroup

“Us” - people with whom we share a common identity

Outgroup

“Them” - those perceived as difference or apart from “us”

Ingroup Bias

The tendency to favor our own group usually at the expense of the outgroup

Scapegoat

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

Categorization

Simplifies though processes, but these mental categories can also lead to the development of stereotypes and prejudice

• The tendency to group similar subjects or people together.

Other-race effect

The tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races

Just-World Hypothesis

A cognitive bias where people believe the world is fundamentally fair, assuming "people get what they deserve and deserve what they get”

• Reflects child’s attitudes that good is rewarded and evil is punished

Agression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

Hostile (Hot-Headed) Agression

Drived by anger, impulsivity, and a desire to cause pain or damage. It is a violent reaction to a percieved threat, often resulting in physical violence or verbal outburts

Instrumental (Cold-Blooded) Agression

A premeditated, goal-oriented action where harm is a byproduct or tool to achieve a goal. The goal is not neccessarily to cause pain, but to get something

Agression - Genetic and Neural Influences

Some have a genetic predisposition towards aggression

Nervours system including amygdala in the brain can stimulate or inhibit aggression

Anger - Biochemistry Influences

Correlation of higher testosterone with aggressive behavior

Alcohol and other drugs can increase aggressive behavior

Learned Aggression

Aggression learned through observation of others being aggressive

• Television and other media encourage aggression

Superordiante Goals

Goasl that require cooperation and override difference among people. Isolation can create enemies, but cooperative contact, through the use of this, can create friends (ex. team sports)

Peer Influences

Peer influences in adolescence is very powerful

Many studies suggest a peer group is correlated with school performance, smoking, and other behaviors.

Culture

Includes the shared attitudes, beliefs, norms, and behaviors of a group communciated form one generation to the next

Norms

Understood rules for accepted and expected behavior

• Consists of “proper" behavior within a group